ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TIMELINE

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TIMELINE



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PREDYNASTIC (ca. 4000-3000 B.C.)



Naqada culture I (Amratian) (ca. 4000 - 3600 B.C.) centers in the village of Naqada, north of Thebes, on the Nile in southern Egypt. Names in parentheses stand for locations of cemeteries. Trade with Nubia, Western Desert oases, and Eastern Mediterranean. Obsidian from Ethiopia. Black-topped and painted pottery. Neolithic.

Naqada culture II (Gerzean) (ca. 3600 - 3150 B.C.) Scorpion King--first ruler of southern Egypt, around 3200 BC. Represented throughout Egypt. First marl pottery, and metalworking.

Naqada culture III (Semainean) (ca. 3150 - 3000 B.C.) Dynasty 0. More elaborate grave goods, first Pharaohs. Cylindrical jars. Writing.

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EARLY DYNASTIC (ca. 3000 - 2675 B.C.)

Dynasty 1 (ca. 3000 - 2800 B.C.) 9 pharaohs. Narmer--believed to be the same person as Menes and to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Egyptian hieroglyphs were fully developed by then, and their shapes would be used with little change for more than three thousand years. Power was centered at Thinis. Human sacrifice was practiced as part of the funerary rituals associated with all of the pharaohs of the first dynasty.

Dynasty 2 (ca. 2800 - 2675 B.C.) 10 pharaohs. The seat of government was centered at Thinis. For the first three pharaohs, sources are fairly close in agreement, then agreement breaks down. Not much is known about this dynasty. Brick-made mastabas were the burial architecture in the first two dynasties.

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OLD KINGDOM (ca. 2675 - 2130 B.C)

Dynasty 3 (ca. 2675 - 2625 B.C.) 5 pharaohs. The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of a Step Pyramid in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier, Imhotep. Dynasty 3 was the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis, in the north. Djoser divided Egypt into 42 provinces, called nomes. At the head of each nome was a provincial governor, called a nomarch.

Dynasty 4 (ca. 2625 - 2500 B.C) 6 pharaohs. Period of pyrimid building. Peace and prosperity. Sneferu c. 2600 B.C built three experimental pyrimids, including the Red Pyramid. He was considered a pious and generous pharaoh. Khufu or Cheops c. 2575 B.C built the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Westcar Papyrus. Djedefre c. 2555 B.C-- some scholars believe he created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. Khafre c. 2535 B.C builder of the second largest in Giza. Menkaure c. 2510 B.C builder of third and smallest in Giza.

Dynasty 5 (ca. 2500 - 2350 B.C.) 9 pharaohs. Userkaf c 2490 B.C built a solar temple in Abusir. Djedkare c. 2400 B.C introduced comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian administration. Longest reign in dynasty. Pyramid of Unas c. 2350 B.C is inscribed with the earliest instance of the pyramid texts. Expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghareh and Wadi Kharit in the Sinai to mine for turquoise and copper, and to quarries northwest of Abu Simbel for gneiss. Trade expeditions were sent south to Punt (perhaps Somaliland) to obtain malachite, myrrh, and electrum, and archeological finds at Byblos attest to diplomatic expeditions sent to that Phoenician city. Sed festivals.

Dynasty 6 (ca. 2350 - 2170 B.C) 7 pharaohs. Perhaps last effective dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society; a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established. Officials were endowed with greater authority—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect. Decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy. The most notable pharaoh of this dynasty was Pepi II c. 2200 B.C , who is credited with a reign of 94 years. The pharaohs sent trade expeditions south to Punt and north to Byblos, and expeditions not only to these locations, but also as far as Ebla in modern-day Syria. Cattle tax.

Dynasties 7-8 (ca. 2170 - 2130 B.C.) What all the experts agree on is that the centralized power of the pharaohs dissipated during this period. Power was diverted to the provincial governors (the nomarchs) and the priestly class. The pharaos rapidly turned over, their tenures became short. Depending on which ancient chronicler you are willing to believe, there were 70 kings in 70 days (Africanus) or 5 kings in 75 days (Eusebius). Whichever, the golden age of the Old Kingdom could not hold up in this chaos and Egypt fell apart into strong and weak provinces.

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FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 2130 - 1980 B.C.)

Dynasties 9-10 (ca. 2130 - 1970 B.C.) By this time, upper and Egypt were no longer united. No pharaoh governed all of Egypt. Provincial governors competed like warlords to see if they could become pharaoh. None could during this First Intermediate Period. For instance, the 9th Dynasty was founded at Herakleopolis Magna, and the 10th Dynasty continued there. This city was the capital of the 20th nome of ancient Upper Egypt, and its nomarchs declared themselves kings--but did not become pharaohs of all Egypt. This pattern held in the Tenth Dynasty.

Dynasty 11, Part I (ca. 2081 - 1980 B.C.) Perhaps 5 nomarchs in succession in the Intermediate Period. Intef the Elder was a Theban nomarch considered a founding figure of the 11th Dynasty. Members of his dynasty were able to defeat the other warlord nomarchs and unify upper and lower Egypt, and become pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom.

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MIDDLE KINGDOM (ca. 1980 - 1630 B.C.)

Dynasty 11, Part II (ca. 1980 - 1938 B.C.) 3 pharaohs. Mentuhotep II reunites Eqypt. The kings of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes, in the south of Egypt. Mentuhotep II sent renewed expeditions to Phoenicia to obtain cedar. Sankhkara Mentuhotep III sent an expedition from Coptos south to the land of Punt. So the monarchy moved from Memphis in the north to Thebes in the south. This had ramifications in later temple-building, as in the magnificent temples at Karnak and Luxor near Thebes. The Valley of the Kings near Thebes later became the pharaohs' burial place, as opposed to the Old Kingdom pyramids near Memphis in the north.

Dynasty 12 (ca. 1938 - 1759 B.C.) 8 pharaohs. The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht, near Cairo. Sesostris I expanded Egypt into Nubia. A high point of ancient Egyptian literature. The Story of Sinuhe. The Satire of the Trades, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, The Dispute between a man and his Soul. Sesostris I ruled over an age of prosperity. Sesostris I established diplomatic relations with some rulers of towns in Syria and Canaan. Sesostris III and Canaan

Dynasty 13 (ca. 1759 - after 1630 B.C.) Number of pharaohs unclear. The power of the 13th Dynasty waned progressively over its 130 years of existence and it finally came to an end with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty, c. 1630 BC.

Dynasty 14 (dates uncertain, but contemporary with later Dynasty 13)

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SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 1630 - 1539 B.C.)

Dynasty 15 (ca. 1630 - 1523 B.C.) Perhaps eight kings of the Hyksos in Egypt. Hyksos people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region. It is believed that they spoke a Western Semitic language. The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been Canaanite. Their capital in Egypt was Avaris, in the north on the Nile Delta. They were the first foreign rulers in Egyptian history. Ancient Jewish historian Josephus identified the Hyksos with the Hebrews of the Bible. Hyksos King Apophis ruled for more than forty years.

Dynasty 16 The Sixteenth Dynasty was a native Theban dynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty around 1650 BC. They were finally conquered by the Hyksos

Dynasty 17 (ca. 1630 - 1539 B.C.) About 9 rulers. Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt was a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled in southern Egypt during the late Second Intermediate Period, approximately from 1580 to 1550 BC. Its mainly Theban rulers are contemporary with the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty and succeed the Sixteenth Dynasty, which was also based in Thebes. Kamose, the second son of Seqenenre Tao and last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, was the brother of Ahmose I, the first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Kamose is credited with defeating the Hyksos and ending their rule.

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NEW KINGDOM (ca. 1539 - 1075 B.C.)

Dynasty 18 (ca. 1539 - 1292 B.C.) 15 pharaohs, including Ahmose I, Thutmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III--The Magnificent, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun. This dynasty ruled from Thebes (in the south), except for Akhenaten, who ruled from Amarna. Thutmose III has been called the Napoleon of ancient Egypt, and was probably Egypt's greatest military leader ever. He extended Egypt's boundaries to include Canaan, Phoenicia, and Syria, Libya, and Nubia--its farthest extension. Battle of Megiddo. Hatshepsut was a female pharaoh who built a huge mortuary temple and large additions to the Temple of Karnak. Akhenaten's effort with monotheism. Tutankhamun--King Tut's tomb.

Dynasty 19 (ca. 1292 - 1190 B.C.) 8 pharaohs, including Seti I, Ramesses II, and Merneptah. Ramesses I had been the vizier of the previous pharaoh before founding the 19th dynasty. Seti I confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. Seti I built the Great Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Karnak, the Temple at Abydos, and his Mortuary Temple. Ramesses II the Great (1303–1213), son of Seti I, is considered to be the pharaoh of Moses and the Exodus. Ramesses II continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famous Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signned. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. He built Abu Simbel, his Mortuary Temple at Abydos, the Ramesseum, and additions to the temples at Luxor and Karnak. Pharaoh Merneptah was the son of Ramesses II.

Dynasty 20 (ca. 1190 - 1075 B.C.) 10 pharaohs, nine of whom were named Ramesses. The capital was Pi-Ramesses, in the Nile delta. This dynasty is generally considered to be the start of the decline of Ancient Egypt. A consistent theme of the dynasty was the loss of pharaonic power to the High Priests of Amun. With the High Priests now acting as intermediaries between the gods and the people, rather than the pharaoh, the position of pharaoh no longer commanded the same kind of power as it had in the past. Setnakhte, the founder of the dynasty, is believed to have been a usurper. Ramesses III had historic battles with the Sea Peoples, from the Aegean region in c. 1178 BC. He finally settled them in Philistia. During the reign of Ramesses IV, Egyptian power started to decline. The pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty were experiencing what became known as the Bronze Age Collapse, where peoples from periphery mountainous regions made iron weapons and defeated older Bronze Age cultures, like ancient Egypt.

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THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 1075 - 656 B.C.)

Dynasty 21 (ca. 1075 - 945 B.C.) 7 pharaohs. The pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty ruled from Tanis in the Nile delta, but were mostly active only in nortern Egypt, which they controlled. The dynasty was a relatively weak group, unable to govern both upper and lower Egypt. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes effectively ruled middle and southern Egypt in all but name. Psusennes I and Siamun were the most powerful kings of this dynasty. They appear to have been native Egyptians.

Dynasty 22 (ca. 945 - 712 B.C.) 11 pharaohs. The pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty were Libyans, ruling from the city of Tanis--near the Nile delta. These were Berber rulers, not native Egyptians. These pharaohs ruled only in the north of Egypt. The founder of this dynasty was Shoshenq I--identified with the biblical Shishak. Pharaoh Osorkon II was an ally of Israel who fought Shalmaneser III of Assyria at the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Pharaoh Osorkon IV possibly the biblical Pharaoh So (2 Kings 17:4) with Hoshea c. 725 B.C .

Dynasty 23 (ca. 838 - 712 B.C.) 7 pharaohs. The Twenty-Third Dynasty was a local group, again of Libyan origin, based at Herakleopolis and Thebes. These rulers overlap the pharaohs of Dynasty 22 and Dynasty 24 because their spheres of influence were in different parts of Egypt. Such was the fragmentation of power in the Third Intermediate Period. Dynasty 23 controlled parts of middle and southern Egypt. Sometimes this period is known as the ‘Libyan anarchy’.

Dynasty 24 (ca. 727 - 712 B.C.) 2 pharaohs. The Twenty-fourth Dynasty was a short-lived rival Libyan dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais). Dynasty 22 ruled from the eastern Delta. Pharaoh Tefnakht I attracted the attention of the Nubian king, Piye, who recorded his conquest and subjection of Tefnakhte of Sais and his peers in a well-known inscription. (Nubia was a country of black Africans from what is now Sudan.) Even though these three dynasties were Lybyans, their official language was Egyptian and their official religion Ancient Egyptian Religion.

Dynasty 25 (ca. 760 - 656 B.C.) 5 pharaohs, named Piye, Shebitku, Shabaka, Taharqa, and Tantamani. The 25th dynasty was a line of African pharaohs who originated in the Kingdom of Kush, located in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt. Most of this dynasty's kings saw Napata as their spiritual homeland. They reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt from 747–656 BC. Napata was the capital of Nubia--often called the Kingdom of Kush. Their capitals were Napata and Memphis. The official languages were Egyptian and Meroitic. Their official religion was the ancient Egyptian religion.

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LATE PERIOD (ca. 664 - 332 B.C)

Dynasty 26 (ca. 664 - 525 B.C.) 6 pharaohs. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt was a native dynasty that ruled Egypt before the Persian conquest in 525 BC. The dynasty's reign (664–525 BC) is also called the Saite Period after the city of Sais, where its pharaohs had their capital. Pharaoh Psamtik I of this dynasty reunified Egypt. He was the son of Necho I and father of Necho II. This latter Pharaoh Necho II, reigned 610–595 BC, most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible and the death of Josiah. Battle of Megiddo (609 BC) Judah and Egypt, won by Egypt. The Battle of Carchemish was fought about 605 BC between the armies of Egypt allied with the remnants of the army of the former Assyrian Empire against the armies of Babylonia, allied with the Medes, Persians, and Scythians. The Egyptians lost.

Dynasty 27 (ca. 525 - 404 B.C.) 7 pharaohs. Egypt was conquered by the Persian Empire in 525 BC and constituted a satrapy as part of this empire until 404 BC. The Persian kings were acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the 27th Dynasty. Some of these Persian rulers were Cambyses II (son of Cyrus the Great), Darius I the Great, Xerxes I the Great, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II. Darius the Great took a greater interest in Egyptian internal affairs than Cambyses Ii. He reportedly codified the laws of Egypt, and notably completed the excavation of a canal system at Suez, allowing passage from the Bitter Lakes to the Red Sea, much preferable to the arduous desert land route. This feat allowed Darius to import skilled Egyptian laborers and artisans to construct his palaces in Persia.

Dynasty 28 (ca. 404 - 399 B.C.) 1 pharaoh. The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted only 6 years, with one pharaoh. Pharaoh Amyrtaeus was a native Egyptian and descendant of the Saite pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty; he led a successful revolt against the Persians. He had the help of Cretan mercenaries. Although Artaxerxes II, Darius' successor as King of Persia attempted to lead an expedition to retake Egypt he was unable to do so, due to political problems with his brother, Cyrus the Younger. This allowed Amyrtaeus to solidify Egyptian rule over Egypt. Very little is known about Amyrtaeus' reign. No monuments from this dynasty have been found. In 398 BC Amyrtaeus was overthrown and executed by Nepherites I, ending the 28th Dynasty and beginning the 29th Dynasty

Dynasty 29 (ca. 399 - 380 B.C.) 4 pharaohs. Nepherites I founded the 29th Dynasty by defeating Amyrtaeus in open battle, and later putting him to death at Memphis. Nepherites then made Mendes, in the Nile delta, his capital. Pharaoh Hakor successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt, drawing support from Athens and from the rebel king of Cyprus. It was a native Egyptian dynasty. Hakor's son was overthrown after being pharaoh for only 4 months, ending the dynasty.

Dynasty 30 (ca. 380 - 343 B.C.) 3 pharaohs. Capital--Sebennytos on the Nile delta. This is the final native dynasty of ancient Egypt; after this, Egypt fell under foreign domination until 1952 A.D. Pharaoh Nectanebo I had gained control of all of Egypt by November of 380 BC, but spent much of his reign defending his kingdom from Persian reconquest with the occasional help of Sparta or Athens. He also engaged in many building projects across Egypt, perhaps outdoing many of his predecessors. Pharaoh Nectanebo II also instituted many building projects. He was the last native ruler of ancient Egypt, his deposition marked the end of Egyptian hegemony until the middle of the 20th century.

Dynasty 31 (ca. 343 - 332 B.C.) 3 pharaohs. The Thirty-first Dynasty of, also known as the Second Egyptian Satrapy, was effectively a satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 343 BC to 332 BC. It was founded by Artaxerxes III, the King of Persia, after his reconquest of Egypt and subsequent crowning as Pharaoh of Egypt, and was disestablished upon the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great. The period of the 31st Dynasty was the second occasion in which Persian pharaohs ruled Egypt, hence the term "Second Egyptian Satrapy". =========================================

MACEDONIAN PERIOD (ca. 332 - 305 B.C.) 3 rulers.

Alexander the Great and his successors. The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. They ruled from 332 to 309 BC: Alexander the Great ruled Egypt from 332 BC until his death in Babylon in 323 BC. Philip Arrhidaeus, the mentally disabled half-brother of Alexander the Great, ruled from 323–317 BC. Alexander Aegus, the son of Alexander the Great and Roxana of Bactria, ruled from 317–309 BC. After this there were wars of succession--called Wars of the Diadochi. The Ptolemys won the right to rule Egypt.



PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY (ca. 305 - 30 B.C.) about 16 rulers

The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian Greek royal dynasty which ruled the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Ancient Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC. The Ptolemaic was the last dynasty of ancient Egypt. The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC.

Ptolemy I Soter c. 305 BC. married first Thaïs, then Artakama, then Eurydice, and finally Berenice I

Ptolemy II Philadelphos c 284 BC. Made major strides in building Alexandria. Founded the Library of Alexandria.

Ptolemy III Euergetes c. 246 BC.

Ptolemy IV Philopator c. 222 BC.

Ptolemy V Epiphanes c. 204 BC. Cleopatra I Syra ruled some of these years. Rosetta stone created

Ptolemy VI Philometor c. 180 BC.

Ptolemy VIII Physcon c. 171 BC. Cleopatra III ruled some of these years

Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator c. 146 BC. Cleopatra II Philometora Soteira ruled some of these years

Ptolemy IX Soter c. 116 BC.

Ptolemy X Alexander c. 110 BC. Berenice III ruled some of these years

Ptolemy XI Alexander c. 80 BC.

Ptolemy XII Auletes c. 80 BC. Cleopatra's father

Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator c. 51 BC. Cleopatra's brother

Cleopatra VII c. 30 BC. The famous Cleopatra. Roman rule took over after the Battle of Actium. The end of Ptolemy rule.

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ROMAN EMPIRE (ca. 30 B.C.. - 476 AD.) Beginning with Augustus Caesar

BYZANTINE EMPIRE (476 AD. - 642 A.D.)

MUSLIM INVASION and rule

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SOURCES

Text was copy and pasted from Wikipedia and other encyclopedia sources.

Outline format used in this timeline
https://www.memphis.edu/egypt/resources/timeline.php

List of pharaohs--Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs

Wikipedia description of each dynasty
First Dynasty of Egypt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt

Hyksos
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos
https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-foreign-takeover-ancient-egypt-was-uprising-not-invasion-180975354/


Karnak Temple
https://discoveringegypt.com/karnak-temple/

More to Come

The Birth of Rock 'n Roll

The Birth of Rock 'n Roll


This research essay is about how genres and sub-genres of different types of music fused together to create a form of music called Rock 'n Roll. The time period examined is from 1890 to 1956.

A thought to begin with--music can be organized in three different broad categories, as listed below:

Classical Music
Popular Music
Church Music and Hymns


Rock 'n Roll is a genre of Popular Music. Almost all of the genres and sub-genres that merged to form Rock 'n Roll were from the broad Popular Music category.

By 1950, the Popular Music category in America. could pretty much be divided into three genres of music, as described below:

Mainstream Popular
Rhythm & Blues
Country-Western


Billboard magazine had weekly and annual lists of the top songs in these three genres. There were other genres of Popular Music category than Mainstream Popular, Rhythm & Blues, and Country-Western. For example, Folk music and Jazz. This examination will focus on the three above of genres Popular Music {Mainstream Popular, Rhythm & Blues, and Country-Western}. Many of the academic experts focus on these three .genres, with the understanding that they are comprised of key subgenres.

For instance, the Rhythm & Blues genre had the following subgenres that had a role in forming Rock 'n Roll: Delta Blues, Ragtime, Boogie Woogie, Big Band dance music (e.g., Fletcher Henderson, Chick Webb, Ellington, Basie), Jump Blues, and Electric Blues.

Likewise, the Country-Western genre of music was comprised over the years by "Hillbilly" and Mountain Music, Western Swing, an Appalachian form of folk music, and Rockabilly.





=================================



Conceptual Framework



American music styles leading to rock 'n roll
--by time period




1890
Delta and Rural Blues
"Hillbilly" and Mountain Music


1910
Ragtime
Boogie Woogie


1935
Big Band dance music (Swing)
Country-Western


1945
Jump Blues
Electric Blues


1950
Rhythm & Blues
Rockabilly


1955
Rock 'n Roll




==============================



One of the key originating points of Rock 'n Roll is Rhythm & Blues. This latter form of music had its beginning in the 1890 to 1920 period in the delta region of Mississippi River. To get some ideas what the Delta blues and other rural blues sounded like, the seven examples below are offered.



Key Musicians--Delta Blues

Charley Patton - Spoonful Blues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyIquE0izAg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charley_Patton


Robert Johnson- Crossroad
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yd60nI4sa9A
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Johnson


Son House -- Preachin' Blues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmR7jjOoFOw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_House


Leadbelly - House of the rising sun
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5tOpyipNJs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_Belly




Key Musicians--Rural Blues


Blind Lemon Jefferson Match Box Blues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i3GEDqkJeVs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Lemon_Jefferson


Blind Willie McTell Statesboro Blues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnWxZtI3ONY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Willie_McTell


Sleepy John Estes Milk Cow Blues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VU9kntOj22Q
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleepy_John_Estes




========================



"Hillbilly" and Mountain Music
1890 to 1920




We are saying that Rockabilly music in the early 1950s had an enormous influence on the development of Rock 'n Roll in 1955 and after. Rockabilly and Country-Western can be traced back to the 1890-to-1920 period. Trouble--we have no recordings during these years.



If you want a pretty good idea what very early Country-Western music sounded like, try these three recordings--by Fiddlin' John Carson, Gid Tanner and his Skillet Lickers, and Uncle Dave Macon



Fiddlin' John Carson "The Little Old Log Cabin In The Lane"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXOIBcnvOKY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddlin.%27_John_Carson


Gid Tanner and his Skillet Lickers--"Back Up And Push"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXAscoBvg5w
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skillet_Lickers


Uncle Dave Macon - "Take Me Back To My Old Carolina Home"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gicjw5n92qQ
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Dave_Macon




======================================



Ragtime and Boogie Woogie
Period--1890 to 1930




In the late 19th and 20th centuries, the popular music that my Irish-American grandparents were listening to were tin pan alley songs sung in the parlor or in vaudeville. In the black community at this time, the popular music that black-folk were listening to were ragtime and boogie-woogie songs most often in drink & dance joints.

Ragtime


Maple Leaf Rag, written by Scott Joplin in 1899 and published
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCxLAr_bwpA&list=LL&index=4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragtime




Boogie Woogie


Boogie Woogie Blues, attributed to Jelly Roll Morton
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLLlloYty7U&list=LL&index=3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boogie-woogie




------------------------------------------------------------------------



Big Band dance music (Swing)
1935




Am thinking that my Dad's music made a contribution to Rock 'n Roll. I think the swing portion of big band music led kids of that era into flamboyant dancing. There are film clips of the kids of that generation dancing in a wild but controlled manner. This was 30 years before Rock 'n Roll.

What the big band dance music did was prepare the parents of kids of Rock 'n Roll for dance styles that weren't that different from what the parents were doing during the Depression and WWII.

Here are three Benny Goodman band pieces that the kids of the generation before ours used to wildly dance to.

-------------------------------

Benny Goodman--three dance pieces by his big band


"Sing, Sing, Sing"--1938
Written by Louis Prima in 1935
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2S1I_ien6A


"Stompin' at the Savoy"--1934 Written by Chick Webb and others https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ky8I_H2RVM


"King Porter Stomp"--1935 Written by Jelly Roll Morton in 1924
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpzOFpPum6w


======================================



Country-Western Music
1935- 1950s




Country-Western music continued to develop. Rockabilly developed with the help of these artists: Jimmy Rodgers, Roy Acuff, Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys, Hank Snow, Hank Williams

Jimmy Rodgers - "In the Jailhouse Now"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p3L2qf3q-ok
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Rodgers_(country_singer)


Roy Acuff - "Great Speckled Bird"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeKecP20r3c
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Acuff


Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys - "Stay a Little Longer"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvX8MijgeW8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Wills


Hank Snow "I'm Movin' On"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XY8h_h-uhA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Snow


Hank Williams & Roy Acuff - "I Saw The Light"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyiGHFGCf2U
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Williams


Hank Williams - "I Can't Help It (If I'm Still In Love With You)" ft. Anita Carter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slFnQfwGJZE


Hank Williams- "Jambalaya on the Bayou"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnKOVPXhlnE


Hank Williams - "Move it on Over"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Lza3NVH6Ig


Hank Williams - "Hey Good Lookin"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjCoKslQOEs


====================================



1945
Jump Blues
Electric Blues




I think the so-called Jump Blues was a major link between ragtime/boogie woogie/swing dance music and rhythm and blues, then rock 'n roll.

"Jump blues is an up-tempo style of blues, usually played by small groups and featuring horn instruments. It was popular in the 1940s and was a precursor of rhythm and blues and rock and roll. Jump blues evolved from the music of big bands." (Wikipedia) It was a morphing of boogie woogie, swing dance music, and the blues.

Jump blues featured artists such as--


Louis Jordan,
Wynonie Harris,
Big Joe Turner, and
Louis Prima.


--------------

Louis Jordan--


"Caldonia"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR6pHtiNT_k


"Choo Choo Ch’Boogie"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1EG__jgefA
---------------

Wynonie Harris--


"Good Rockin' Tonight"--1948
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xo9auUfitVA&t=95s

"All She Wants To Do Is Rock"--1949
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL5Z_4vYkWw

-------------------------------

Big Joe Turner--


"Shake, Rattle & Roll"--1954
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YhELpSeeipg


"Hide And Seek"--1955
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ds-hhCPhoA


-----------------------

Louis Prima (an Italian-American)--


"Jump, Jive, An' Wail"--1956
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0N-c90piSQ&list=OLAK5uy_nedmOC7Td8QDqEkmGZcd0AvH_DLzuSeP4


==========================================



Then R/B morphing of electric guitar into the Jump Blues combo became Rhythm and Blues.



Eventually the solid body electric guitar replaced the saxophone as the lead instrument.

In the 1940s, talented black musicians made a key adjustment away from the use of acoustic guitars in the Delta blues and country blues. They began playing amplified electric guitars in blues performances. (The electric guitar had been invented in the 1930s by Adolph Rickenbacker and others. The solid body electric guitar was invented separately by Leo Fender and Les Paul.)

The Electric Blues musicians developed a strong style and helped create a place for the electric guitar in popular music. The two Electric Blues musicians considered here are T-Bone Walker and Elmore James

I reckon that the Electric Blues sub-genre, the Jump Blues sub-genre, and the Boogie Woogie sub-genre morphed into the Rhythm & Blues genre of popular music in the early 1950s. Then by 1955, the Rhythm & Blues genre and the Rockabilly sub-genre morphed into Rock 'n Roll, taking over the mainstream popular category of music.



-----------------------------



T-Bone Walker


"Stormy Monday Blues"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5FGFHxSgfk&list=OLAK5uy_kspuN17tu2fAgrCX0s_jnQ362rvgQRk4Y


"Throw Your Love On Me So Strong"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSmqA_ISX9E


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Bone_Walker


-------------------------

Elmore James


"Dust My Broom"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5jcGY7NbaQw


"One Way Out"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t7qKYPysur8


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmore_James


======================================



1950
Rhythm & Blues




Wikipedia: "Rhythm and blues, often abbreviated as R&B, is a genre of popular music that originated in African-American communities in the 1940s. The term was originally used by record companies to describe recordings marketed predominantly to urban African Americans, at a time when "urbane, rocking, jazz based music with a heavy, insistent beat" was becoming more popular. In the commercial rhythm and blues music typical of the 1950s through the 1970s, the bands usually consisted of piano, one or two guitars, bass, drums, one or more saxophones, and sometimes background vocalists. R&B lyrical themes often encapsulate the African-American experience of pain and the quest for freedom and joy, as well as triumphs and failures in terms of relationships, economics, and aspirations."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues

-----------------

Ike Turner/Jackie Brenston--"Rocket 88" released in 1951
First rock 'n roll record? Recorded by Sam Phillips, then licensed to Chess Records. (Phillips had in 1951 a recording studio, but had not created Sun Records yet)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gbfnh1oVTk0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_88


Muddy Waters --" Rolling Stone"
Born in Mississippi. Moved to Chicago, and he began recording blues numbers in the 1940s. His band became the star act at Chess Records. The English rock band Rolling Stones claimed that they got their name from the Muddy Waters' song of that name.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnsw4sySaxw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muddy_Waters


Howlin' Wolf-- "Smokestack Lightning"
Born in Mississippi, moved to Chicago, and became a major rhythm and blues act at Chess Records. Began recording in the early 1950s.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTDjD_UdJYs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howlin%27_Wolf


Little Walter-- "Walter's Blues Live"
Blues harmonica virtuoso Little Walter was born in Louisiana. Moved to Chicago, and became part of the Muddy Waters band at Chess Records. Later had sucess as a solo performer. Inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2008.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUDxw5cn890
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Walter


Big Mama Thornton - "Hound Dog" (1952)
Rhythm & Blues. Reached #1 on Billboard's R&B charts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoHDrzw-RPg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Mama_Thornton


Rufus Thomas Jr. - "Bear Cat". (The Answer To Hound Dog) 1953
More Rhythm & Blues. Reached #3 on Billboard's R&B charts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jXQ29v9Nheo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_Thomas


Elvis Presley "Hound Dog" (1956) From Rhythm & Blues into Rock 'n Roll. Reached #1 in Billboard's Mainstream Popular charts. 1956--the Year of Elvis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aNYWl13IWhY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley


-------------------------------------------------------



Rockabilly




Wikipedia: "Rockabilly is one of the earliest styles of rock and roll music. It dates back to the early 1950s in the United States, especially the South. As a genre it blends the sound of Western musical styles such as country with that of rhythm and blues, leading to what is considered "classic" rock and roll. Some have also described it as a blend of bluegrass with rock and roll. The term "rockabilly" itself is a portmanteau of "rock" (from "rock 'n' roll") and "hillbilly", the latter a reference to the country music (often called "hillbilly music" in the 1940s and 1950s) that contributed strongly to the style. Other important influences on rockabilly include western swing, boogie-woogie, jump blues, and electric blues." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockabilly



Maddox Brothers and Rose - "Sally Let Your Bangs Hang Down" 1948
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGCt6D0lB_c
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddox_Brothers_and_Rose


Delmore Brothers - "Hillbilly Boogie" 1946
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiIL_F9EuuM
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Delmore_Brothers


Jimmy Bryant & Speedy West - "Boogie Man" c. 1950
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMVCr3pZRJU
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedy_West


Bill Haley & His Comets
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Haley_%26_His_Comets


Bill Haley and the Saddlemen - "Rocket 88" 1951
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPLS2i9dSy0


Bill Haley & His Saddlemen - "Rock The Joint" 1952
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-BztZfXzlo


Bill Haley With Haley's Comets - "Real Rock Drive" 1952
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w77xXbch__o


Bill Haley and The Comets -"Crazy Man Crazy" 1953
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MI2vUzUqeZY


Bill Haley and his Comets - "Shake, Rattle and Roll" 1954
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B7xr_EjbzE




===================================== =====================================



Summary and Conclusion




So our discussion brings us to music in the early 1950s. The inquiry ends in 1955-56. Something happened! We have followed patterns of genres and sub-genres that eventually morphed into Rock 'n Roll. But what was the spark that made things happen?

Part as summary, part as conclusion, I'm going to let my opinions be set free and identify ten spark-points over the past more than a century that led to the birth of Rock 'n Roll in 1955. This time instead of focusing on genres and sub-genres of influential music, I'll identify ten different spark-points created by ten different people that were revolutionary enough to make things happen in popular music. Five of the ten people are African-American, five white Americans. Nine are musicians, one was a purveyor of popular music. They are Scott Joplin--1899, W.C. Handy--1912, Jelly Roll Morton--1915, Albert Ammons--1936, Wynonie Harris--1948, Woody Guthrie--1940, Hank Williams--1947, Alan Freed--1954, Bill Haley--1955, and Elvis--1956. Some we have already discussed, some are new to the discussion.



------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point One
1899--Scott Joplin publishes the "Maple Leaf Rag"

Wikipedia: "Scott Joplin (1868 – 1917) was an African-American composer and pianist. Joplin is also known as the "King of Ragtime" because of the fame achieved for his ragtime compositions, music that was born out of the African-American community. During his brief career, he wrote over 100 original ragtime pieces, one ragtime ballet, and two operas. One of his first and most popular pieces, the "Maple Leaf Rag", became ragtime's first and most influential hit, and has been recognized as the archetypal rag."


Joplin performed in Chicago for the World's Fair of 1893, which played a major part in making ragtime a national craze by 1897. "Maple Leaf Rag" was the first song to sell a million copies--of sheet music. It was considered the first crossover hit, where a white audience appreciated the music from the African-American community. (The crossover appeal became a key factor in the establishment of Rock 'n Roll fifty years later.) The ragtime music was heavily syncopated, with African rhythms. In this sense it was an important precursor of Rock 'n Roll.


The "Maple Leaf Rag" 1899 by Scott Joplin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O_dI6BZt06U


"The Entertainer" 1902 by Scott Joplin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKlcTG8GbB8


-----------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Two
1912--W.C. Handy publishes the "Memphis Blues".


Wikipedia: "W.C. Handy--William Christopher Handy (1873 – 1958) was an African-American composer and musician who referred to himself as the Father of the Blues. Handy was one of the most influential songwriters in the United States. One of many musicians who played the distinctively American blues music, Handy did not create the blues genre but was the first to publish music in the blues form, thereby taking the blues from a regional music style (Delta blues) with a limited audience to a new level of popularity."


The 1912 publication of the sheet music of "The Memphis Blues" introduced his style of 12-bar blues; it was credited as the inspiration for the foxtrot by Vernon and Irene Castle, a New York dance team.


"Memphis Blues" - W. C. Handy (1912)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WWfMKFQjonY


W.C. Handy - "St. Louis Blues" (1914)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gpp75gQ-T6Y&t=50s


--------------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Three
1915--Jelly Roll Morton publishes "Jelly Roll Blues," the first published jazz composition.


Wikipedia: "Jelly Roll Morton, was an African-American ragtime and jazz pianist, bandleader, and composer. Morton was jazz's first arranger, proving that a genre rooted in improvisation could retain its essential characteristics when notated. His composition "Jelly Roll Blues", published in 1915, was one of the first published jazz compositions. He also claimed to have invented the genre."


The Jelly Roll Blues by "Jelly Roll Morton" (1915)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ry0597jUNzk


Jelly Roll Morton - "King Porter Stomp"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8_2ISGOIjU


----------------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Four
1938--Albert Ammons brings boogie-woogie piano playing to Carnegie Hall.


Wikipedia: "Albert Ammons (1907 – 1949) was an African-American pianist and player of boogie-woogie, a bluesy jazz style popular from the late 1930s to the mid-1940s."


Albert Ammons - "Boogie Woogie Stomp"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBmVtW5qxGs


Albert Ammons --"Swanee River Boogie"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j0Ay8L5dkZE


------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Five
1948--Wynonie Harris releases "Good Rocking Tonight"


Wikipedia: "Wynonie Harris (1915 – 1969) was an African-American blues shouter and rhythm-and-blues singer of upbeat songs, featuring humorous, often ribald lyrics. He had fifteen Top 10 hits between 1946 and 1952. Harris is attributed by many music scholars to be one of the founding fathers of rock and roll. His Good Rocking Tonight is especially mentioned at least as a precursor to rock and roll."


Wynonie Harris - "Good Rockin' Tonight" (1948)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xo9auUfitVA


Wynonie Harris - "Loving' Machine" (1951)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWK0zBvIltc


-----------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Six
1940--Woody Guthrie writes "This Land is Your Land"


Wikipedia: "Woody Guthrie (1912 – 1967) was an American singer-songwriter and one of the most significant figures in American folk music. His work focused on themes of American socialism and anti-fascism. His music includes songs such as "This Land Is Your Land", written in response to the American exceptionalist song "God Bless America", and has inspired several generations both politically and musically."


Guthrie was key in the development of folk music, and made an impression with the guitar as lead instrument. The guitar became the lead instrument of Rock 'n Roll as well. What this meant was that Rock 'n Roll musicians need not be classically trained. With a great degree of practice, a prospective musician could perform with a guitar in a Rock 'n Roll group.


Country singer Tim McGraw had this to say in a book called Songs of America: Woody Guthrie was to rock and roll what Hank Williams, Sr., was to country music. He was a singer-songwriter in the way we think of it today, especially in country music, with a guitar in hand, scribbling lyrics on a notepad. It sounds simple, but lyrically he's singing with a cause and a message--a rebellion that would feul those who came after, like Bob Dylan and Bruce Springsteen.


Woody Guthrie- "This Land Is Your Land"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxiMrvDbq3s


Woody Guthrie-- "Deportee (Plane Crash At Los Gatos)"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qu-duTWccyI


------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Seven
1947--Hank Williams releases hit song "Move It on Over"


Wikipedia--"Hank Williams (1923 – 1953) was an American Country & Western singer, songwriter, and musician. Regarded as one of the most significant and influential American singers and songwriters of the 20th century, he recorded 35 singles (five released posthumously) that reached the top 10 of the Billboard Country & Western Best Sellers chart, including 11 that reached No. 1 (three posthumously)."


Again, Hank Williams made the guitar his lead instrument. Williams played accoustic guitar, and his band members included an electric lead guitar and a stand-up bass. As in Rhythm & Blues, the concept of the instrumentation of the standard band was forming.


Hank Williams--"Move it on Over"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Lza3NVH6Ig


"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WXYjm74WFI


---------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Eight
1954--Alan Freed moves his radio "Rock and Roll Dance Party" to New York, after success in Cleveland.


Wikipedia--"Alan Freed (1921 – 1965) was an American disc jockey. He also produced and promoted large traveling concerts with various acts, helping to spread the importance of rock and roll music throughout North America...He became internationally known for promoting African-American rhythm and blues music on the radio in the United States and Europe under the name of rock and roll."


Alan Freed's Rock'N Roll Dance Party
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJ1NnecTMyk


------------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Nine
1955--Bill Haley and His Comets release hit song "Rock Around the Clock". Rock 'n Roll is born!


Wikipedia: "Bill Haley & His Comets were an American rock and roll band, founded in 1952 and continued until Haley's death in 1981. From late 1954 to late 1956, the group placed nine singles in the Top 20, one of those a number one and three more in the Top Ten. The single "Rock Around the Clock" became the biggest selling rock and roll single in the history of the genre and retained that position for some years." Haley was born in Highland Park, Michigan.


Bill Haley also made the guitar the lead instrument in his band. Williams played rhythm guitar, and his band members included an electric lead guitar, stand-up bass, and drums. That became close to the standard instrument make-up of rock bands--rythym guitar, electric lead guitar, electric bass, and drums.


Bill Haley & His Comets - Rock Around The Clock (1955)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZgdufzXvjqw


Bill Haley & His Comets - "Rip It Up" - 1956
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdlfZ4213zM


-----------------------------------------------------------------

Spark-point Ten
1955--Elvis has his first #1 hit on the mainstream pop chart at Billboard, Heartbreak Hotel.


Elvis Presley (1935 – 1977) was an American singer and actor. Dubbed the "King of Rock and Roll", he is regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century. His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines during a transformative era in race relations, led him to both great success and initial controversy.


1956 was the year of Elvis, consolidating the place Rock 'n Roll in American culture. In 1956, Elvis had five #1 hits on Billboard mainstream charts. Plus that year he had three other minor hits.

Elvis Presley -- Heartbreak Hotel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e9BLw4W5KU8


Elvis Presley -- Don't Be Cruel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkdjEsOhmWU


=======================================

The idea that the year 1955 was the birth of "Rock 'n Roll" is espoused by Prof. John Covach of the University of Rochester Music Dept. He expresses this in the Coursera online course "History of Rock". Prof. Covach argues that Rock 'n Roll gained its own identity as crossover hits became the common thing.

1955 was the year of crossover hits. A crossover is when a Country-Western song or a Rhythm & Blues song scores big in the Mainstream Popular chart at Billboard. Bill Haley, with Rock Around the Clock, became the obvious crossover hit.

In 1956 and later, Elvis, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Carl Perkins had major crossover hits. Likewise, Fats Domino, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry also had major crossover hits. Alan Freed gave Rock 'n Roll an identity by naming it first on regional radio, then on national radio. Musicians were delighted with the new identity. By 1960, Rock 'n Roll was the dominant music category on mainstream popular radio stations.

-----------------------------------------------------

There are probably two ways of looking at things when trying to peg what year Rock 'n Roll got started. One way would be to identify when Rock 'n Roll songs started to be heard on the radio. The other way would be to identify when Rock 'n Roll became the dominant music in mainstream American youth culture.

Professor David Carlson of the University of Florida College of Journalism and Communication, believes that Rock 'n Roll began in 1951. He has expressed this in an online course at Coursera, entitled, "Music's Big Bang: The Genesis of Rock 'n Roll". Prof. Carlson believes by 1951 there were genuine Rock 'n Roll songs on the radio, for instance, Ike Turner/Jackie Brenston--"Rocket 88" released in 1951. Carlson points out that in 1951, Alan Freed had a Rock 'n Roll radio show in Cleveland. Also by 1951, Sam Phillips had a rock recording studio in Memphis.

This is a pretty strong argument. However, each of the three points have weaknesses. The idea of a song having a Rock 'n Roll identity hadn't been fully established in 1951. In the early 1950s these rock-sounding songs either had a Rhythm & Blues identity or a Rockabilly identity.

Likewise, Alan Freed's radio show in Cleveland helped to form a Rock 'n Roll identity, but the music played was mostly Rhythm & Blues. His show was important enough that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was established in Cleveland. Yet, his radio show in Cleveland was mostly a regional program. It was in the mid-1950s, when Alan Freed's radio show moved to New York City, that he began to have a national audience. In the mid-1950s, certain performances of Rhythm & Blues, Rockabilly, and other genre songs were given a Rock 'n Roll identity by Freed and other key music opinion leaders. It was this period that the youth generation of the mid-1950s began to embrace Rock 'n Roll as their own, especially those who liked to dance.

When Sam Phillips opened up his recording studio in Memphis, and then established his Sun Records label in the same city a year later in 1952, his emphasis was makin R & B records for an African-American audience. What Phillips yearned to find was a white person capable of singing R & B., and thereby making crossover records that would reach mainstream America. Then Elvis Presley walked in his building. Phillips gave Elvis a recording audition on July 5, 1954. That night Elvis recorded "That's All Right," a song that in 1946 had been a R & B hit for black singer Arthur Crudup. Three days later, the song was playing on a popular Memphis radio program. Elvis's first song was becoming a local.

Phillips quickly had Elvis record a Bill Monroe song to become the flip-side of "That's All Right," Elvis's first record reached #28 on the Billboard Country charts. Sam Phillips' strategy had worked--partially. A white singer sang an R & B song, and it was accepted by white audience. Now Phillips wanted to reach a national mainstream white audience. That would be done by getting records to sell well enough to place on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.

Elvis recorded 24 songs with Sam Phillips and Sun Records in 1954 and 1955. Out of these, five 2-sided 45 rpm's were released by Sun Records. Elvis even recorded "Good Rocking Tonight," the influential 1948 R & B song by Wynonie Harris. Of these Sun Records releases, a couple reached the Country charts, one reaching #1 on the Country charts. Elvis was not able to place in the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1955, the measure of reaching national mainstream acceptance.

Phillips realized that Sun Records was too small to have the big reach he needed for his original idea to work. Toward the end of 1955, Phillips sold Elvis's contract to RCA Victor Records. This was a large company that could realize Sam Phillips' dream. Elvis began recording RCA's equipment The records were released. In 1956, Elvis had five #1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. 1956 was the year of Elvis. He set the path for other white performers to reach the top by singing R & B songs. Sam Phillips did not need to feel that he was left out. In 2004, the "That's All Right / Blue Moon of Kentucky" single was re-released and reached number 1 on the Billboard Singles Sales chart. Sun Records' Elvis finally reach #1 on the Billboard mainstream chart.

The main point of bringing in a discussion of Sam Phillips and Elvis is to demonstrate more fully that the beginning of Rock 'n Roll is really the mid 1950s. I think most of the teenagers from the 1950s associate the beginning of Rock 'n Roll with the emergence of Elvis. The story of the arrival of Elvis is in the 1954 to 1956 period.

I would like to draw a parallel here. Historians say that the Renaissance began in 1400. Yet there were Renaissance-quality paintings before 1400. For example, the painting of St. Paul by Italian painter Pietro Cavallini, dating to 1293. History needs benchmarks, and setting the year 1400 as the beginning of the Renaissance is convenient and helpful. This is true despite exceptions that fall before the benchmark.

Likewise, when we say that Rock 'n Roll began in 1955, it is simply a well-reasoned benchmark stated with the understanding that there were Rock 'n Roll quality songs before 1955. Obvious examples were "Good Rockin' Tonight" and "Rocket 88". Even Bill Haley and his Comets released his version of "Shake, Rattle and Roll" in 1954--and that was clearly a Rock 'n Roll song.

========================== ==========================

Sources

Prof. John Covach of the University of Rochester Music Dept. Coursera online course "History of Rock"

Professor David Carlson, University of Florida College of Journalism and Communication. Coursera online course "Music's Big Bang: The Genesis of Rock 'n Roll"

Rock & Roll (documentary TV series)--PBS, 1995

The History of Rock and Roll (documentary TV series)--Tme/Warner, 1995

Wikipedia articles--Popular music, Art song, Timeline of musical events, Vaudeville, Parlour music, Rockabilly, Fletcher Henderson, Chick Webb, Earl Palmer, Fender (company), Electric blues, Electric guitar, Woody Guthrie, Scott Joplin, W. C. Handy, Hank Williams, Jelly Roll Morton, Scott Joplin, Alan Freed, Sun Records, Elvis Presley singles discography, List of songs recorded by Elvis Presley on the Sun label, and other citations found in text

Youtube citations found in text

The Brill Building
http://www.mysonicisland.com/the-brill-building.html

THE HISTORY OF TIN PAN ALLEY
https://www.soundamerican.org/issues/big-band/history-tin-pan-alley

Woody Guthrie
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Woody_Guthrie

Hank Williams
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hank-Williams

Miscellaneous Writings

Some additional articles, essays, and idea papers can be found at these sites--



http://misc-topics.blogspot.com/

http://misc-topics2.blogspot.com/

Jesus, the Kingdom of God, and Ancient Netherworlds

Jesus, the Kingdom of God, and Ancient Netherworlds



When Jesus began his public ministry, among the first things he did was was proclaim that the Kingdom of God was at hand. He boldly talked about human accessibility to Heaven and Paradise, eternal happiness. These ideas didn't exist in Abrahamic or Mosaic Judaism. The Hebrews believed that the afterlife consisted of a dark, dreary, and shadowy Sheol below the earth, a kingdom of the dead whether one was good or bad. Jesus, on the other hand, talked of eternal life, where we could be in the light of close proximity to God.

Jesus often spoke of the Kingdom of God in parables. Paul the Apostle was more specific. He spoke of heaven as being paradisiacal, more pleasant than words can describe. He also spoke of us having glorified bodies there. Modern theologians speak of heaven as a place where there is profound Divine love, unlike anyplace else in existence.

These kinds of ideas did not exist in Hebrew Judaism, but began to grow in the postexilic period. They certainly did not exist in the afterlife systems of the ancient pagan world. And that is what this historical essay is about. It is a review of the afterlife systems of numerous of the ancient religious/mythological systems. In short, this describes the ancient netherworlds.

The kingdoms of the dead in Judaism and these four pagan religious/mythological systems of ancient times will be examined.

* The Sheol of Hebrew Judaism
* Netherworld of the Babylonians
* The Egyptian netherworld
* Hades--the netherworld of the Greeks
* Infernus--the Roman netherworld


After discussing these manifestations of the afterlife, the Christian afterlife will be explored. The kingdom of God. Heaven and Paradise. When the comparisons are made, the significance of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross is easier the grasp.



The Sheol of Hebrew Judaism


The Sheol, as mentioned above, was the abode of the dead in ancient Judaism. It was centered deep in the earth, and was a place of darkness and silence. The Sheol is described in the Bible between the time of Genesis to the postexilic period. Whether one was good or bad, a king or a pauper, when one died, their spirit was transported to the Sheol. There the spirit was as a shadow, or a shade. There were no lofty emotions or activities in the Sheol--it was a place of oblivion. Sometimes referred as the "nether world" in some translations of the Bible.

The range of translations can be seen in Psalm 6:6. The New American Bible: "For in death there is no remembrance of you. Who praises you in Sheol?" The Douay-Confraternity translated Sheol into "nether world." The Knox Bible of Westminster translated the Sheol in "the tomb." The Latin Vulgate uses "inferno"--the Latin word for Hell.

The souls of the good and the bad went to the Sheol. For instance, in Genesis 37, when Jacob was told that his son Joseph was dead, he said "I will go down mourning to my son in Sheol." Likewise the bad. For instance, in Numbers 16, Korah leads a faction in rebellion against Moses. God opens the ground up, Korah and his whole faction are swallowed up by the earth, and they fall into the Sheol.

In chapter 38 of Isaiah, King Hezekiah says that he worried he would not recover from a life-threatening illness--"In the noontime of life I said, I must depart! To the gates of Sheol I have been consigned for the rest of my years." Hezekiah gave this description of the Hebrew netherworld and its relation to God: "For it is not Sheol that gives you thanks, nor death that praises you; Neither do those who go down into the pit await your kindness." (The Sheol was often described as the "pit" or the "abyss" on the Bible.)

Gehenna is another reference to the Sheol in the Bible. It was a valley to the south of Jerusalem. It served as a garbage dump, and a constant fire was burning there. In early times it was notorious as a worship spot of the pagan god Moloch for the people in the Jerusalem area. They offered their children as human sacrifice to Moloch. The place served as a Tophet.

During the Babylonian exile, the prophets began to speak differently about the netherworld. The Second Temple period, from 500 B.C to 70 A.D., produced writings that were far more hopeful than were the original concepts of the Sheol. Two ideas came into the theology. First, those who were good could possibly look forward to a paradisiacal existence after death (and those were bad would continue onto an unhappy existence in the Sheol). Second, those who were good would raise from the dead from their graves.

In Daniel chapter 12, the prophet reports that in some future time: "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake; Some to everlasting life, others to reproach and everlasting disgrace. But those with insight shall shine brightly like the splendor of the firmament, And those who lead the many to justice shall be like the stars forever."

In the 37th chapter of Ezekiel it says: "Thus says the Lord GOD: Look! I am going to open your graves; I will make you come up out of your graves, my people, and bring you back to the land of Israel. You shall know that I am the LORD, when I open your graves and make you come up out of them, my people!. I will put my spirit in you that you may come to life, and I will settle you in your land. Then you shall know that I am the LORD. I have spoken; I will do it—oracle of the LORD." Earlier, in chapter 36, the prophecy of the Lord says: "I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you. I will remove the heart of stone from your flesh and give you a heart of flesh. I will put my spirit within you so that you walk in my statutes, observe my ordinances, and keep them...I will deliver you from all your impurities. I will summon the grain and make it plentiful; I will not send famine against you."

It is not stated in the Old Testament when these changes to the Jewish afterlife and netherworld will happen. In the Catholic teachings the changes happened between the Crucifixion, Easter, and the Ascension.



Netherworld of the Babylonians



As shall be seen, the netherworld of ancient southern Mesopotamia had many shared characteristics with the Sheol of the early Hebrew Bible. This might be expected in that the time period was the same, and Abraham came originally from lower Mesopotamia.

What do we mean by lower Mesopotamia? In the third millennium B.C., the development of civilization occurred in this area by way of the city-states of Sumer, as in Uruk, Eridu, Babel, and Ur. Around 2250 B.C., Sargon the Great of Akkad conquered all of Sumer, and developed one of the early territorial states in world history. Around 1800 B.C., the region become part of the early Babylonian empire..

Much of the information about the afterlife as believed by people of Babylon can be found in humanity's first great work of literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh. This story influenced the thinking in Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and further north in Mesopotamia, in Assyria. Toward the end of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the eponymous character becomes very concerned with the netherworld and seeks to find more and more information about it.

The Epic of Gilgamesh was written in Sumer in perhaps 2300 B.C. Even before that, in perhaps 2600 B.C., a poem was written in Sumer called The Descent of Inanna into the Underworld. This poem also had some description of the Mesopotamian netherworld. Inanna was the goddess of love and sensuality in the pantheon of Sumer. Her counterpart in the Babylonian pantheon was Ishtar. There was a similar poem written in Old Babylonian and with fewer lines called The Descent of the Goddess Ishtar into the Lower World.

Below is the beginning of the latter poem describing Ishtar's travel to Irkalla, the Babylonian netherworld. The god Sin was the Babylonian god of the moon.

To the land of no return, the land of darkness,
Ishtar, the daughter of Sin directed her thought,
Directed her thought, Ishtar, the daughter of Sin,
To the house of shadows, the dwelling, of Irkalla,
To the house without exit for him who enters therein,
To the road, whence there is no turning,
To the house without light for him who enters therein,
The place where dust is their nourishment, clay their food.'
They have no light, in darkness they dwell.
Clothed like birds, with wings as garments,
Over door and bolt, dust has gathered.
Ishtar on arriving at the gate of the land of no return,
To the gatekeeper thus addressed herself:
"Gatekeeper, ho, open thy gate!
Open thy gate that I may enter!


In the Babylonian poem, the netherworld has seven gates. Past the seventh gate can be found Ereshkigal, the Babylonian goddess who rules the netherworld. In European literature, Ereshkigal would be similar to the Queen of Night. Below is more about the Babylonian netherworld from the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Upon death, Babylonians believed their spirit became a ghostlike entity, called a Gidim. Only a few mortals escaped this and were promoted to the assembly of gods. The underworld was very unpleasant. In the story, Gilgamesh's dead friend Enkidu’s spirit rises up from the netherworld. "Gilgamesh inquires about the Nether World. Enkidu tells him that it is terrible and that if he tells Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh will sit down and weep. Gilgamesh implores Enkidu to tell him anyway. Enkidu says that vermin eat at his body."

In the underworld there was a pile of crowns. Every dead king of the world, except a few, resided in the underworld. And too, the high priests, acolytes, priests of incantation and of ecstasy, and the servers of the temple were there. All in this miserable existence. One must not cause attention to oneself in the underworld or it will arouse the "Cry of the Dead."

An example in the Babylonian mythology of someone who avoided this awful afterlife by being promoted to the assembly of gods was Gilgamesh himself, who achieved the the status of a minor god. There were not many who reached this level. The vast majority of people were put into the Babylonian underworld when they died. Well, according to the mythology.



The Egyptian Netherworld



In ancient Egyptian mythology, a larger number of people were able to reach a blessed afterlife--though it still consisted of a small minority. Some sources suggest that to reach a blessed afterlife one needed to be well-heeled enough to be able to afford a personalized version of the Egyptian Book of the Dead to help them to pass the various tests required to be happy in the afterlife.

Another important point is that the concept of the netherworld in Egypt changed over time. Ancient Egypt existed for over 3,000 years. An example of what is being said here is that the Egyptian Book of the Dead dated to the period of the New Kingdom--about 1500 B.C. The early dynasties of Egypt extended 1,500 earlier than that.

Duat was the name of the realm of the dead in ancient Egyptian mythology. It was ruled over by the Egyptian god Osiris. Duat was divided into twelve regions, varying from the paradisiacal Field of Rushes to the hellish Lake of Fire. The soul of the deceased person, believed to be contained in the heart, had to pass through the regions and be tested to qualify for residence in the Field of Rushes.

Wikipedia has this to say below about Duat, the ancient Egyptian netherworld--with a reference to a book published by the University of Chicago:

According to an ancient Egyptian burial text, "the underworld consists of twelve regions signifying the twelve hours of [Ra] the sun god's journey through it, battling [the god of chaos] in order to bring order back to the earth in the morning; as his rays illuminated the Duat throughout the journey, they revived the dead who occupied the underworld and let them enjoy life after death in that hour of the night when they were in the presence of the sun god, after which they went back to their sleep waiting for the god's return the following night."

(As background information, the Egyptians believed that Ra the sun god was in the heavens for twelve hours during daylight, and then took to sun to the underworld for twelve hours during the night. Thus, Ra and the sun rose in the east, and set in the west. and traveled across the underworld throughout the night. Then rose again in the east the next morning.)

After succeeding numerous tests and challenges posed by demons and other beings, the soul of the deceased in Duat must must undergo the weighing of the heart before Osiris. The deceased is brought before the ruler of the netherworld by Anubis, the god of death, who has a weighing scale upon which the deceased's heart is on one of the pans. On other pan is the feather of Ma'at, the goddess of order, balance, and harmony. If the heart is heavier than the feather, then the soul is devoured by Ammit, a demon with a huge crocodile head.

This last phenomena amounted to the non-existence of the deceased soul. The being ceased to exist. If, however, the deceased passed the weighing of the heart test, the soul would proceed to the paradisal Field of Rushes. Again, it would seem that a minority of Egyptians found this eternal bliss--there were so many barriers standing in the way.



Hades--the Netherworld of the Greeks



The kingdom of the dead among the ancient Greeks was called Hades--also the name of its ruling god. It was possible to reach a blessed afterlife, but the path was arduous and long. Homer in the Odyssey writes a segment where Ulysses travels to the underworld. There Ulysses meets the spirit of the the deceased Achilles, and exclaims that surely Achilles must be in a state of bliss. But Achilles says not, by replying, "Nay, seek not to speak soothingly to me of death, glorious Odysseus. I should choose, so I might live on earth, to serve as the hireling of another, of some portionless man whose livelihood was but small, rather than to be lord over all the dead that have perished."

The entrance to the Greek underworld was said to be a cave leading to the depths of the earth. In front of the cave was Thanatos, the god of death. Also, there were personifications of Grief, Agony, Anxiety, and others. Near the entrance were beasts and monsters, such as Centaurs, Scylla, and Gorgons. The soul the of deceased person was led to a swamp on the River Styx, the river of hatred in the underworld. There countless souls remain as shadows until they are able to make some progress.

In order to cross the River Styx to where they will receive judgment. the souls must rely on the help of Charon the Ferryman and his boat. But Charon insists on payment of a coin. In practice, the Greeks buried their dead with a coin under their tongue--the coin to be used to pay Charon. The souls without the coin would remain on the banks of the River Styx for eternity. Sometimes Charon would accept a Golden Bough for payment. And sometimes Charon would ferry souls across the River Acheron, the river of pain.

Once Charon had crossed the River Styx with the boatload of deceased souls, they were at the Gates of Hades where they would find judgment and then a destination. At the gates was Cerberus, a ferocious three headed dog that prevented the souls from dodging judgment. To quote Wikipedia: "In the Greek underworld, the souls of the dead still existed, but they are insubstantial, and flitted around the underworld with no sense of purpose. The dead within the Homeric underworld lack menos, or strength, and therefore they cannot influence those on earth. They also lack phrenes, or wit, and are heedless of what goes on around them and on the earth above them. Their lives in the underworld were very neutral, so all social statuses and political positions were eliminated and no one was able to use their previous lives to their advantage in the underworld."

The souls of the deceased were examined by the Judges of the underworld, and based on these considerations were sent to one of three destinations. The wicked were sent to Tartarus, the abyss, the deepest and darkest part of the Greek underworld. Tartarus was full of unhappiness and divine punishment. The three harpies called the Furies afflicted panful vengeances on those who engaged in wicked acts.

On the happy side of things, there was Elysium--sometimes called the Elysian Fields. Those who lived distinguished lives went there. It was paradisiacal. No labor. A blessed and happy life. Doing what you enjoy. In the early period of Greek history, only demigods and heroes were. admitted. Later, the gods also chose people who lived particularly virtuous lives to be in Elysium.

The Asphodel Meadows was the place in the Greek netherworld where the vast majority of deceased souls resided. These were ordinary spirits who weren't wicked, but did not achieve greatness. Things in the Asphodel Meadows were not like a paradise, but also were not punitive. Daily existence there was full of apathy and indifference. At worst, the gloom of monotony was ever-present.

There were numerous other features of the Greek netherworld and of some these will be discussed in the next section.



Infernus--the Roman Netherworld



The ancient Romans' afterlife took place in Infernus, which was derived from the Latin word for underground. Infernus had many of the same characteristics as Hades of the Greeks, which is not surprising when one considers that the Greeks had settled colonies in Southern Italy at about the time that Rome and the Latin villages were first developing. (Likewise Babylon's netherworld had many of the same features as nearby Sumer, the city-state system that preceded Babylon.)

The Roman god Pluto governed the Roman netherworld. Dis Pater, another Roman god, also had a key role in Infernus. The Romans had the myth regarding Persephone, but the Roman name for the goddess was Proserpina. A major source of information about the Roman netherworld can be found in Book VI of the Aeneid by Virgil. Some summary information from this work will be given below.

Aeneas was a Trojan hero during The Trojan Wars with Greece, in the ancient days before history was carefully recorded. When the Greeks were able to enter Troy and destroy it, Aeneas was able to escape, gather some men, and set sale westward, landing in Carthage, and then in Italy. This is hundreds of years before Rome is founded. In fact, Aeneas becomes an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. Virgil's epic poem The Aeneid, is about Aeneas's adventures in making his way to Italy. Whereas Homer wrote his epics in Greek. Virgil's is written in Latin.

By the time Aeneas reached Italy, he and his men had been through many many trials and tribulations. His intent was to form a kingdom somewhere in Italy for the Trojans. He sought the help of the gods and of spirits to get a sense of destiny in this endeavor. He wished to go to the underworld to talk to his deceased father for an understanding of things. He was also determined to seek the help of the Sibyl of Apollo at Cumae, near Naples. This set the stage for Aeneas's trip to the Roman underworld.

The Cumaen Sibyl told Aeneas that Apollo prophesied that Aeneas's ambition to form a Trojan kingdom in Italy would succeed, but first they would need to fight a terrible war. The Cumaen Sibyl also said that she would help Aeneas reach the Roman netherworld, but first he would need to fetch a Golden Bough. After some effort, Aeneas achieved the quest of obtaining a Golden Bough. Thus, Aeneas and the Cumaen Sibyl set off for Infernus, the Roman kingdom of the dead

The first set of images of the Roman underworld match those of the Greek underworld. At the entrance are spiritual monsters representing Hunger, War, and Discord. Further down is Charon and the River Styx. Thousands and thousands of shadowy souls are standing aimlessly because they are unable to pay the fare for crossing the River Styx. Aeneas is horrified upon hearing the wailing of thousands of suffering souls. Later, Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter the three-headed guard dog Cerberus, who is pacified by a piece of drugged cake.

Aeneas sees the Fields of Mourning, where heart-broken people who were unsuccessful at love wander. Next is a field of heroes--those who distinguished themselves in battle. Further, Aeneas sees region of Tartarus and Erebus. There, wicked souls are tortured.

Finally, Aeneas reaches the Blessed Groves, where his deceased father wandered. His father assures Aeneas of the importance of his mission of founding of a Trojan kingdom in Italy. He tells his son that his descendants would include Romulus and Remus, who would found Rome. And that his descendants would also include the great Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus.

It can be mentioned parenthetically, that in both Greek and Roman mythology there was a River Lethe in their netherworld. In the River Lethe, souls bathed themselves in order to forget their memories of previous lives.

Summing it up, the Roman netherworld was like the Greek netherworld in that things were mostly grim and disturbing. Some made it to a happy afterlife, but these were mostly of the heroic type.



Jesus and the Kingdom of God



According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "There is a heaven, i.e., God will bestow happiness and the richest gifts on all those who depart this life free from original sin and personal mortal sin, and who are, consequently, in the state of justice and friendship with God...The bliss of heaven is eternal and consists primarily in the possession of God, and heaven presupposes a condition of perfect happiness, in which every wish of the heart finds adequate satisfaction."

When Jesus spoke of the kingdom of God, he was describing heaven, or perhaps paradise as he said. on the cross. When Jesus spoke to Pilate, he said his kingdom was not of this world. Heaven as Jesus described it was almost to good to be true. The whole point of describing the netherworlds of the ancient world has been to enable one to see how wonderful the afterlife promised by Jesus was compared in contrast to the afterlife of the other ancient religions or mythologies.

Again from the Catholic Encyclopedia, "In heaven the just will see God by direct intuition, clearly and distinctly. Here on earth we have no immediate perception of God; we see Him but indirectly in the mirror of creation. We get our first and direct knowledge from creatures, and then, by reasoning from these, we ascend to a knowledge of God according to the imperfect likeness which creatures bear to their Creator. But in doing so we proceed to a large extent by way of negation, i.e., by removing from the Divine Being the imperfections proper to creatures. In heaven, however, no creature will stand between God and the soul. He himself will be the immediate object of its vision."

Furthermore, "theologians deem more appropriate that there should be a special and glorious abode [in heaven], in which the blessed have their peculiar home and where they usually abide, even though they be free to go about in this world...At the end of the world, the earth together with the celestial bodies will be gloriously transformed into a part of the dwelling-place of the blessed."

Another key point in the Christian view of the afterlife is the doctrine of the glorified body. As referenced in St. Paul's 1 Corinthians chapter 15, at the end of the world our souls will be reunited with our bodies, but our bodies will be transformed. They will be glorified bodies. Theologians have interpreted scripture to say that our glorified bodies will have four characteristics, as described below.

1) Impassibility – the glorified body will no longer suffer physical pain, sickness, or death 2) Subtlety--meaning that we will have a spiritualized nature in the sense of a spiritual body, as did our Lord Christ’s glorified body which was able to pass through closed doors. 3) Agility – the glorified body will obey the soul with the greatest ease and speed of movement. travel great distances in an instant. 4) Clarity – the glorified body will be free from any deformity and will be filled with beauty and radiance

One modern theological writer quotes Aquinas to describe the promise of a glorified body:

St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Contra Gentiles, IV, 86 summarized: 'thus also will his body be raised to the characteristics of heavenly bodies — it will be lightsome (clarity), incapable of suffering (impassible), without difficulty and labor in movement (agility), and most perfectly perfected by its form (subtlety). For this reason, the Apostle speaks of the bodies of the risen as heavenly, referring not to their nature, but to their glory.'"



SOURCES



Netherworld https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/netherworld

Encyclopedia Britannica--Death--Mesopotamia, Hell

Catholic Encyclopedia--Terrestrial Paradise, Limbo, Purgatory, Hell



Wikipedia Articles--Afterlife, Greek underworld, Empyrean, Paradise, Limbo, Third Heaven, Seven Heavens, Paradiso (Dante), Purgatorio, The Earthly Paradise, Daniel's final vision, Duat, Aeneas, Underworld, Sheol, Dumuzid, The City of God, Golden Legend, Christian angelology, Apocalyptic literature, Uruk,



The New American Bible--Ezekiel Chapter 37; Ezekiel Chapter 36; Ezekiel Chapter 31; Ezekiel Chapter 26; Isaiah Chapter 38; Daniel Chapter 12; Baruch Chapter 4; Psalm 6; Psalm 30; 1 Corinthians Chapter 15;

GLORIFIED BODY https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/glorified-body

Four Properties of a Glorified Resurrected Human Body https://taylormarshall.com/2012/10/do-you-know-four-properties-of.html

The Epic of Gilgamesh Summary and Analysis of Tablet XII https://www.gradesaver.com/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/study-guide/summary-tablet-xii

Descent Of Inanna http://people.uncw.edu/deagona/myth/Descent%20Of%20Inanna.pdf

Gilgames Epic Tablet XII - Sumerian Cosmology https://www.academia.edu/40144373/Gilgames_Epic_Tablet_XII_Sumerian_Cosmology

THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH http://www.aina.org/books/eog/eog.htm

The Descent of Inanna into the Underworld: A 5,500-Year-Old Literary Masterpiece https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/descent-inanna-underworld-5500-year-old-literary-masterpiece-007296

DESCENT OF THE GODDESS ISHTAR INTO THE LOWER WORLD https://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/ishtar.htm

Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world: translation https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1814.htm

HOMER, ODYSSEY 11 https://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerOdyssey11.html

Sparknotes--Homer, The Odyssey, Books 10–11 https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/odyssey/section6/

Roman Underworld http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-gods/roman-underworld.htm

The Aeneid, by Virgil https://www.gutenberg.org/files/228/228-h/228-h.htm

LitCharts--The Aeneid, by Virgil https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-aeneid/book-6

Sparknotes--The Aeneid, by Virgil Book VI https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/aeneid/section6/

CliffNotes--Virgil's Aeneid, Summary and Analysis Book VI https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/a/aeneid/summary-and-analysis/book-vi


Courses on Ancient Egypt at https://www.coursera.org/ 1) Introduction to Ancient Egypt and Its Civilization 2) Wonders of Ancient Egypt --by University of Pennsylvania

More to come.

Ancient History Timeline

Ancient History Timeline



The story of mankind in ancient history also includes the chapters of man's prehistory, before writing systems had been developed. Before science, it was thought that the dawn of man was some 6,000 years ago, about 4000 B.C. According to science, the dawn of man was some 200,000 years ago, and that there were lesser hominid creatures before that. When it comes to things like this, science is in a very weak position because it does not assume the existence of an Almighty God. These history timelines do assume the existence of such an Almighty God. According to the Old and New Testaments, a thousand years are as a single day in the time-clock of God. So in God's time, 365,000 man-years of science could fit into one year in the calendar of the Almighty. The prehistory of mankind would be within such a calendar. The story of man and part of his prehistory, begins here about 6,000 years ago. Some of the dating reckoned by science of prehistory events of mankind are also included below, for comparative purposes.

Scriptural references--Psalm 90, v. 4 and 2 Peter, 3:8.



--Prehistory of Man

200,000 B.C.--First Homo Sapiens appear, according to science. Human Beings.

200,000 B.C.--Paleolithic Period--Old Stone Age; the dating according to science.

50,000 B.C.--Mesolithic Period--Middle Stone Age

10,000 B.C.-- Neolithic Period--New Stone Age

15,000 B.C. Cave Paintings in Southwest France; the dating by science
10,000 B.C. End of the last Ice Age
10,000 B.C. Gobekli Tepe--southeastern Turkey, an early temple, perhaps for burial rites and ancestor worship
8000 B.C. Catal Huyuk--in Turkey, about 400 miles west of Gobekli Tepe; near obsidian rock quarries for stone tools; house units combined together with entrance on roofs. A hunter-gatherer community; no evidence of agriculture or pastoral activity.
8000 B.C. Neolithic Revolution of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry begins
5000 B.C. Village Settlement at Tell-es-Sawwan on Tigris River, Mesopotamia; the dating according to science. Small walled settlement with individual houses; a "palace" for the chieftain; a small temple structure; a granary and area for animals. About 200 people
5000 B.C Copper Age begins--end of the Stone Age (Neolithic Period ends), dating reckoned by science.


4000 B.C. Beginning of cities on the Euphrates River at Uruk and others, Sumer 3500 B.C. Wheel invented in Sumer, Mesopotamia

3500 B.C Bronze Age begins

1500 B.C Iron Age begins.

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--History of Mankind



Early Civilizations Develop around the World



3000 B.C Writing first appears in Uruk and Sumer, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers--Mesopotamia. History begins. Writing is in cuneiform script on clay tablets. Sumerian written language develops; it is not Semitic or Indo-European, and is not part of any other language family.

3000 B.C. The Pharaoh Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt, capitals of Memphis and Thebes. Begins the First Dynasty--the Old Kingdom (3000 B.C. to 2181 B.C., Dynasties 1 thru 6); The Middle Kingdom (2055 B.C. to 1650 B.C., Dynasty 12); New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C., Dynasties 18 thru 20). In between the Kingdom periods are Intermediate Periods of instability and invasions; order and harmony, Ma'at, are lost. Before 3000 is the Predynastic Period, with the Scorpion King. Written hieroglyphics is developed, so ancients Egyptians can record events and transactions. Civilization develops along the fertile banks of the Nile.

3000 B.C Indus River civilization begins in India. Significant cities develop in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. A writing system develops which are now undecipherable. Archeologists have found huge ruins in these areas.

3000 B.C In Ireland, the Newgrange passage grave is built in County Meath, and dolmens are erected throughout the island. In England, Stonehenge is built on Salisbury plain. In Brittany, France a complex alignment of standing stone monuments are built at Carnac.

3000 B.C. In the region north of the Black Sea, the Yamna culture is growing using Copper Age technologies. This is the culture that first develops the proto Indo-European language. This culture divides further and expands both into the Danube region, and also into Bactria (current Afghanistan). From these areas, Indo-European languages spreads to Europe and India.

1900 B.C. Minoan culture on Crete; Palatial Period; Knossos is capital; Linear A writing--not yet decipherable. A proto-Greek Aegean culture. Minoan was not Indo-European language—it belonged to no known family of languages.

1750 B.C. China--Shang Dynasty begins. Developments along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. Early Chinese writing is developing.

1600 B.C. Mycenaean culture on the Greek mainland. Beginnings of Greek civilization. Indo-European. Linear B writing--some is decipherable.

1500 B.C. Olmec civilization in Mexico. They grow maize corn, and carve huge heads of basalt stone. Descendants of Asiatic peoples who crossed the Bering Straits land-bridge into North America before the end of the last Ice Age. In Peru in 900 B.C., the Chavin culture grows potatoes and domesticates llamas. Later comes the Nazca culture. Norte Chico culture.

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Early Mesopotamia



2800 B.C. Gilgamesh in city-state of Uruk in Sumer--legendary time he lived in Mesopotamia. Uruk was a walled city on the Euphrates River. It had a large temple to the goddess Ishtar (Inanna) and a “White Temple” dedicated to the sky-god Anu. Uruk is a center of trade, agriculture, and learning. Experts think this was the first fully-functioning city in history. In Genesis of the Old Testament, Uruk is referred as Erech or Arach, depending on the translation. In Sumer, lower Mesopotamia, many independent cities develop.

2350 B.C. Sargon the Great of the city of Akkad conquers all the city-states in Sumer, and establishes an Akkadian Empire. The people of Akkad speak a Semitic language, and it replaces Sumerian; though they still use a cuneiform script on clay tablets for writing.

2000 B.C. Powerful dynasty in Sumerian city-state of Ur re-emerges. They build a huge ziggurat temple to the moon god, perhaps similar to the Tower of Babel. The Biblical Abraham came from here soon thereafter.

1800 B.C. Babylon conquers and establishes an empire all up and down Mesopotamia. (The city of Babylon was on the Euphrates River, about 53 miles south of the present Baghdad.) Amorite peoples are key to establishing this first Babylonian Empire. Babylonian King Hammurabi sets up a legal code, one of the earliest legal codes in history. After the death of Hammurabi, the barbarian Kassites conquer Babylon; they rule until the Assyrian Empire takes command the region of lower Mesopotamia.



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Egypt's Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom



2686 B.C. End of the Second Dynasty in Egypt. The first two dynasties (3000 to 2686 ) are often called the Early Dynastic Period.

2500 B.C . Pyramids of Giza built in Egypt; for Pharoahs Khufu (Cheops), Kafre, and Menkare. Sphinx also built at this time. This was the time of the powerful 4th Dynasty (2613 B.C.- 2494 B.C.) of the Old Kingdom, with five major pharaohs and also minor ones. Main capital is in Mempis--in the northern part of the Nile.

2181 B.C First Intermediate Period begins. Anarchy descends as nobles acting as warlords in the old northern and southern kingdoms gain independence from pharaoh. Even the capitals of Memphis and Thebes are lost from the pharaoh, who governs only an area around Heracleopis.

2055 B.C Middle Kingdom begins, lasts until 1650 B.C. Princes of Thebes regain Egypt from the warlord nobles; the pharaoh is in control again. A great necropolis is built at Abydos, and more concerns about the afterlife is evident. Main capital moves to Thebes, in the southern part of the Nile in Egypt.

1650 B.C. Second Intermediate Period begins. Chaos and disorder come to Egypt with the invasion of the Hyksos people and the south is taken over by the Kushites. Period ends with the beginning of the New Kingdom in 1550 B.C.





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Early Story of the Jewish Peoples



1850 B.C. Abraham--about the date of his time and the founding of the Jewish people.

1230 B.C. Moses--about the date of his time

1000 B.C. David--about the date of his time. David makes Jerusalem the capital of the Jewish Kingdom.

950 B.C. Solomon--about the date of his time. Solomon builds the first temple. Also a lavish palace.

930 B.C. Jewish State splits into Northern Kingdom with the capital of Samaria, and the Southern Kingdom with the capital of Jerusalem.

722 B.C. Fall of Northern Kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians.

587 B.C. Fall of Southern Kingdom of Judah to the Babylonians.

539 B.C. Persians conquer Babylon. Persian king frees Jews there.

c. 450 BC Under Ezra, Jews have a semi-independent kingdom protected by the Persians.

323 BC. Death of Alexander the Great means that the Jewish kingdom must undergo tension as Henllenized Greek culture and dominance make their way to Judea.

166 B.C. Judas Maccabee revolt against Seleucid empire of Hellenized pagans.

110 B.C. The Hasmonean Kingdom is an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea, run by the Maccabees. Lasts until Rome conquers Judea in 63 B.C.

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Egypt's New Kingdom



1550 B.C. Egypt's powerful 18th Dynasty begins-- Pharaohs Ahmose I, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, and Queens Hatshepsut and Nefertiti. Beginning of the New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C.), with the main capital at Thebes.. Pharaoh Thutmose III wins the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 B.C. in present-day Israel; he defeats the peoples of Canaan and the Mitanni--Egypt gains control of Judea. Huge temple complex at Karnak, near Thebes (modern Luxur). Valley of Kings royal necropolis is built near Thebes. Queen Hatshepsut has a huge tomb complex.

1500 B.C. The Hittites emerge as a powerful state in Asia Minor. Capital at Hattusa--archeologists have found the ruins of the city. Hittites spoke an Indo-European language; archeologists have found a library of their writings, and some of it is decipherable. Hittites were first to use iron weapons. By the 1300s BC under King Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite Empire encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The Hittites and the Egyptians of the New Kingdom become rivals for world domination—well, the world from their perspective.

1292 B.C. Egypt's powerful 19th Dynasty begins--Pharaohs Rameses II, Seti I, and Merneptah. Ramses II wins the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C. in Syria; he defeats the Hittites and their King Muwatalli II--the aftermath results in history's first peace treaty. Battles with the Sea Peoples towards the end, during the reign of Ramsess III.

1069 B.C. Third Intermediate Period begins; lasts until 664 B.C. Chaos and disorder again in Egypt. Sea People cause havoc during the Bronze Age Collapse. Nubians take the throne at c. 715 B.C., with Ethiopian Shesbonk as king.

664 B.C. Late Period begins; lasts until Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. At some times native Egyptians become pharaoh once again, although outside empires are able to conquer Egypt. During the Late Period, the Assyrians conquer Egypt in 670 B.C., and the Persians conquer Egypt in 525 B.C.

850 B.C. Homer in Greece

753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome.



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The Assyrian Empire and the New Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia



New Assyrian Empire



c. 2025-1378 BC Old Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire. Two hundred years before this, the Assyrian kings lived in tents. Ushpia was the last Assyrian king to live in a tent--living as a nomad. King Ushpia was designated by later Assyrians as the founder of the temple dedicated to Ashur in the city of Aššur.

1365-1050 BC Middle Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire.

911 B.C. Beginning point of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Iron Age Empire. During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language. . The Assyrian priests also spoke Sumerian, believing the gods of Assyria spoke the language of ancient Sumer.

883 BC King Ashurnasirpal II’s reign begins, rules until 859 BC. He began a large move of expansion and conquest, exacting tribute from many areas. He moved his capital to the city of Nimrud (from Assur).

859 BC Shalmaneser III’s reign begins, rules until 824 BC. Continues the expansion and conquest campaign of his father, Ashurnasirpal. Captures Babylon and areas of Arameans in Syria. King of Northern Jewish kingdom does homage to Shalmaneser III. He builds a palace at Nimrud.

744 BC Tiglath-Pileser III’s reign begins, rules until 727 BC. Biblical. He introduced advanced civil, military, and political systems into the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Changes to the Assyrian government and administration of the provinces, considerably improving governance of the empire. Developed Assyria's first professional standing army. Nearly doubled the size of the Assyrian Empire., which now included Babylon. Seized Damascus and made inroads to conquering the Northern Jewish Kingdom. Deported many Jews into the Assyrian Empire.

727 BC Shalmaneser V’s reign begins, rules until 722 BC. Biblical. Son of Tiglath-Pileser III. After three years of siege he took the city of Samaria, and thus conquered the Northern Jewish Kingdom of Israel. The Jewish populations he deported to various lands of the empire, (together with ones deported about ten years earlier by Tiglath-Pileser III) are known as the "Ten Lost Tribes" of Israel. The pagan populations he settled in Samaria instead form the origins of the Samaritans

721–BC Sargon II’s reign begins, rules until 705 Biblical Another son of Tiglath-Pileser III. Sargon was beset with widespread rebellions by the beginning of his rule. The Biblical Merdodach-Baladan, a chieftain of the Chaldean tribes of the south, declared himself king of Babylon in 721 BC. A year later, Sargon and Merdodach-Baladan battled east of Babylon. Babylon was supported by Elam. The Elamite troops checked the Assyrian army, and Merdodach-Baladan retained control of the south and the title of king of Babylon. Syro-Hittite city of Carchemish rebelled. Sargon II killed by the Indo-European coalition of Cimmerians, Skythians, and Urartu.

705–BC Sennacherib’s reign begins, rules until 681 BC. Biblical. Son of Sargon II. Sennacherib makes capital at Nineveh. . The refusal of the people of Babylon to accept Assyrian rule, culminating in his destruction and subjegation of the city in 689 BC by Assyrian army. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned from Babylonia to the western part of the empire, where Hezekiah of Judah, incited by Egypt and Merodach-Baladan, had renounced Assyrian allegiance. The rebellion involved various small states in the area: Sidon and Ashkelon were taken by force and a string of other cities and states, including Byblos, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom then paid tribute without resistance. Ekron called on Egypt for help but the Egyptians were defeated. Sennacherib then turned on Jerusalem, Hezekiah's capital. He besieged the city and gave its surrounding towns to Assyrian vassal rulers in Ekron, Gaza and Ashdod. However, Sennacherib did not breach the city, and Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler. Sennacherib was assassinated, quite possibly by sons.

681–BC Esarhaddon’s reign begins, rules until 669 BC. Biblical. Son of Sennacherib. Did battle with Urartu, also known as the Kingdom of Van/Armenia. The Sidonian king who had risen up against the Assyrian king, was defeated in 677 BC and beheaded. The town of Sidon was destrored and the population was deported to Assyria. A share of the plunder went to the loyal king of rival Tyre . In 671 BC, Esarhaddon went to war against Pharaoh Taharqa of Egypt, a pharaoh from Nubia. Assyria took the northern part of Egypt. Debilitating illness in his old age that left him incapable of governing so that he abdicated some time in 668 BC in favor of his son Ashurbanipal. He died a year later.

668 BC Ashurbanipal’s reign begins, rules until 627 BC. The son of Esarhaddon. Built Library in Nineve. Ashurbanipal defeated the Elamites. Ashurbanipal sent an army against Egypt in 667 BC that defeated the Nubian king Taharqa, near Memphis, while Ashurbanipal stayed at his capital in Nineveh. At the same time, some Egyptian vassals rebelled and were also defeated. All of the vanquished leaders save one were sent to Nineveh. Only Necho I, the native Egyptian Prince of Sais, convinced the Assyrians of his loyalty and was sent back to become the Assyrian puppet Pharaoh of Egypt. Assyria was by then master of the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from the Caucasus in the north to North Africa and the Arabian peninsula in the south, and from Cyprus and the east Mediterranean in the west, to central Iran in the east. Ashurbanipal enjoyed the subjugation of a myriad of nations and peoples, including Babylon, Chaldea, Media, Persia, Egypt, Libya, Elam, Gutium, Parthia, Cissia, Phrygia, Mannea, Corduene, Aramea, Urartu, Lydia, Cilicia, Commagene, Caria, Cappadocia, Phoenicia, Canaan, the Suteans, Sinai, Israel, Judah, Samarra, Moab, Edom, Ammon, Nabatea, Arabia, the Neo-Hittites, Dilmun, Meluhha, Nubia, Scythia, Cimmeria, Armenia and Cyprus, with few problems during Ashurbanipal's reign. For the time being, the dual monarchy in Mesopotamia went well, with Shamash-shum-ukin accepting his position as the vassal of his brother peaceably.

605 B.C. Battle of Carchemish. Twenty years after Ashurbanipal, Assyria came to an end--for all time. Battle of Carchemish between the armies of Egypt allied with the remnants of the army of the former Assyrian Empire against the armies of Babylonia, allied with the Medes, Persians, and Scythians. Earlier, at the Fall of Harran (609 BC) the Babylonians and Medes defeated an Assyrian-Egyptian alliance, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an independent state. At Carchemish, Pharoah Necho II of Egypt and the Assyrians fought against King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and King Cyaxares of the Medes. Prior, Pharoah Necho II had defeated Judah at the Battle of Megiddo, and Judah's King Josiah was killed. Pharoah Necho and the Assyrians were defeated though at Carchemish, and the Assyrian Empire was no more. This led to the subsequent rise of the Babylonian and Persian Empires.



New Babylonian Empire (625 B.C. to 539 B.C.)



626 B.C. Babylonians rebel against the Assyrians, and are able to set up their own kingdom a year after the death of the powerful Assyrian King Ashurbanipal. Babylonians led by Nabopolassar; he and his son Nebuchadnezzar become the first two kings of the new Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar’s reign lasts about eleven years. He formed an alliance with King Cyaxares of the Medes in order to destroy the Assyrian Empire.

612 B.C. Babylonians, often called Chaldeans, help sack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Seven years later the Babylonians and their allies definitively defeat the Assyrians at the Battle of Carchemish. The capital of the empire moves to the city of Babylon. From the beginning to end, the new Babylonian kingdom lasts only long enough to produce six kings. Chief god of the Babylonians is Marduk.

604 B.C. King Nebuchadnezzar begins a powerful reign of Babylon, a reign that lasts 42 years--until 562 B.C. Lavish architectural structures like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate are built. Nebuchadnezzar was the main general in the defeat of the Assyrians at Carchemish in 605.

562 B.C. Amel-Marduk begins two year reign; the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Named Evil-Merodach in the Old Testament narrative. Assasibated by his brother-in-law Neriglissar, who becomes king for four years—followed by Neriglissar’s son, who has a reign of one year.

556 B.C. Nabonidus becomes king of Babylon. Wikipedia: “The Marduk priesthood hated Nabonidus because of his suppression of Marduk's cult and his elevation of the cult of the moon-god Sin.” He was from Harran, and his mother had been connected with the temple of the moon god there. Nabonidus’s son Prince Belshazzar often ruled in his stead.

539 B.C. Babylon falls to the Persian King Cyrus the Great. Babylonian King Nabonidus is deposed, as is his son Prince Belshazzar. Babylon never emerges as a kingdom again.

141 B.C. The city of Babylon is abandoned. The city becomes a ruins. It is discovered again by explorers and archeologists in the 1800s. The ruins are excavated from the desert.



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Persian Empire



By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE. In ancient times, some of these places were called Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Lycia, Colchis, Media, Parthia, Bactria. The Persians built a Royal Highway across their empire, enabling products from the East (via the Silk Road) to reach the West. The Persians also had a policy of toleration that enabled people from different lands to co-exist and maintain large scale trade routes to remain open peaceably. The Persians practiced Zoroastrianism as a major religion, with the beliefs of monotheism and the battle between good and evil.

Achaemenid Dynasty and the Persian Empire (550–330 BC)

705 BC. The early dynastic rulers of Persia before it became an empire were these four members of the Achaemenid family in succession. 1) Achaemenes. First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom --705 BC; 2) Teispes. Son of Achaemenes-- 640 BC; 3) Cyrus I. Son of Teispes 580 BC; 4) Cambyses I. Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus the Great --550 BC.

560 BC. Cyrus the Great Founder of the empire; King of the "four corners of the world" 560–530 BC Cyrus built his empire by first conquering the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He led an expedition into Central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception". Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, and was alleged to have died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.

530 BC Cambyses II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 530–522 BC Cyrus the Great was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to conquer Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule.

522 BC. Darius the Great. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BC Darius built up Persepolis ant turned it into the capital of the Persian Empire. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra–Nehemiah.

486 BC. Xerxes the Great King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 486–465 BC Xerxes I is one of the Persian kings identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther. Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. Xerxes oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. He is also notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until the losses at Salamis and Plataea. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.

465 BC Artaxerxes I 465–424 BC Portrayed in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah. Artaxerxes is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation. Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis.

405 BC Artaxerxes II 405–358 BC. Artaxerxes became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies during the Peloponnesian war, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II, invaded Asia Minor in 396-395 BC. He forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. Expedition against Egypt failed. From 372 BC many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt. Artaxerxes II finally quashed the Revolt of the Satraps by 362 BC.



358 BC. Artaxerxes III. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt (Regained control over Egypt after 50 years) 358–338 BC. Soon after becoming king, Artaxerxes murdered all of the royal family to secure his place as king. He started two major campaigns against Egypt. The first campaign failed, and was followed up by rebellions throughout the western part of his empire. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes defeated Nectanebo II, the Pharaoh of Egypt, driving him from Egypt, stopping a revolt in Phoenicia on the way. In Artaxerxes' later years, Philip II of Macedon's power was increasing in Greece, where he tried to convince the Greeks to revolt against the Achaemenid Empire. His activities were opposed by Artaxerxes, and with his support, the city of Perinthus resisted a Macedonian siege.

336 BC. Darius III King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt; last ruler of the empire 336–330 BC n 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius. Before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by his cousin Satrap Bessus.



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Ancient Greece



1184 B.C. (?) Troy falls to the Greeks, according to legend. Troy actually did exist just below the Hellespont (Dardanelles) on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor (Turkey); German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann found the ruins of Troy in the 1870s.

1100 B.C. Dorian invasion of the Greek mainland, and the beginning of a Dark Age in Greece--that lasts until the Greeks begin applying the idea of a polis. --Geometric Period (c. 900-700 B.C.) -- Orientalizing Period (c. 700-600 B.C.) --Later, during the Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.)

900 B.C. Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians continue to invade. Dark Age continues. Geometric Period art is a phase of Greek art, characterized largely by geometric motifs in vase painting, that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages, circa 900 BC – 700 BC. Its center was in Athens, and from there the style spread amongst the trading cities of the Aegean.

800s B.C. Greeks develop the idea of the polis regarding what their cities should be like; they apply this idea in their own cities. The Greeks develop colonies in the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). The power of the idea and its application brings Greece out of the Dark Age.

Periods of Greek History:

Archaic Period (800 BC – 480 BC)

Late Archaic Period (560 BC – 480 BC)

Classical Period (480 BC – 323 BC)

Hellenistic Period (323 BC – 146 BC)



850 B.C. Period of Homer

800 B.C. Lycurgus of Sparta--lawgiver of Sparta who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness, and austerity.

776 B.C. Beginning of the first Olympic games

750 B.C. Period of Hesiod

621 B.C. Code of Draco—-Draco, an Athenian lawgiver, issues code of laws, with many crimes punishable by death. First recorded legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by a written code to be enforced only by a court. Draco was the first democratic legislator, inasmuch as he was requested by the Athenian citizens to be a lawgiver for the city.

594 B.C. Solon reforms—Solon an Athenian statesman, becomes Archon, captures Salamis from Megarians—later, when member of the Areopagus is appointed to effect social reforms in order to preserve order in Athens, which include the abolition of the security of debts on a debtor's person, returning exiled Athenian slaves, changing the value of weights and measures to the Corinthian standard, prohibiting the export of grain from Attica and encouraging the planting of olives, established the property classes and the council of 400.

585 B.C. Thales the pre-Socratic philosopher correctly predicts an eclipse. He was one of the Milesians thinkers, along with Anaximander and Anaximenes. Later came the pre-Socratic philosopher named Heraclites with his theories on change. Also, Pythagoras the mathmetician.

561 B.C. Pisistratus regime, to 527 B.C. was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period Pisistratus championing of the lower class of Athens, the is an early example of populism. While in power, Pisistratus did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor, and funded many religious and artistic programs. His legacy lies primarily in his instituting the Panathenaic Festival Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Pisistratus and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias. Pisistratus was the brother-in-law of Cleisthenes; however, Pisistratus was much older.

508 B.C. Cleisthenes was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." Also, he was credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens’ assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics. He reorganized the Boulecouncil, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe. He also introduced the bouletic oath, "To advise according to the laws what was best for the people". The court system was reorganized and had from 201–5001 jurors selected each day, up to 500 from each tribe. It was the role of the Boulecouncil to propose laws to the assembly of voters, who convened in Athens around forty times a year for this purpose. The bills proposed could be rejected, passed or returned for amendments by the assembly. Cleisthenes was the uncle of Pericles' mother and of Alcibiades' maternal grandfather

492 B.C. First Persian War, to 490 B.C. Achaemeaid Dynasty in Persia.

480 B.C. Second Persian War, 479 B.C. Themistocles in Athens King Leonidas in Sparta.

477 B.C. Delian League

457 B.C. Ascendancy of Pericles, to 429 B.C. Pericles was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the Golden Age—specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family. Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens" Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century. Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people. Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.

431 B.C. Peloponnesian War, to 404 B.C.

415 B.C. Athenian expedition to Syracuse in Sicily with Alcibiades, lasts two years.

399 B.C. Trial and execution of Socrates; he's found guilty of corrupting his students and for being impious towards the gods. Plato was a student of Socrates; he forms a school in Athens called the Academy. Aristotle is the student of Plato; he founds a school in Athens called the Lyceum, and later becomes the teacher of Alexander the Great.

359 B.C. Phillip of Macedon begins his reign.

336 B.C. Alexander the Great's reign, until he dies young in 323 B.C. at age thirty-three--reign of 13 years; he conquered much of the Western world--but not Rome, which was a young Republic then, and not Carthage, a Phoenician foundation city with an small empire that was about to be conquered by Rome.

323 B.C. Hellenism period begins, with the spreading of Greek culture throughout the Western world.



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The Hellenistic Period



The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean and Near Eastern history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. At this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its peak in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, experiencing prosperity and progress in the arts, exploration, literature, theatre, architecture, music, mathematics, philosophy, and science. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele and a syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism in Bactria and Northwest India.

301 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire was divided up between four of his generals-- 1) Cassander got Greece; 2) Ptolemy got Egypt and parts of the southern Levant; 3) Lysimachus got the region around Thace and western and northern Anatolia; and 4) Seleucus I Nicator got the remaining territory stretching from southeastern Anatolia and the northern Levant to the Indus River.

200 BC. By this time, Anatolia (Asia Minor, now Turkey) was divided up into smaller kingdoms--Pergamum in western Anatolia; Bithynia and Pontus in the northern part; Galatia in the central part; and Cappadocia and Armenia in the eastern part. Some of the kings of these kingdoms were Pergamum--Attalus; Bithynia--Nicomedes; Pontus--Mithridates; Galatia --Leonnorios; Cappadocia--Ariarathes; and Armenia--Tigranes the Great

200 BC. Also by this time, other kingdoms in the empire became independent--Nabatean Kingdom, Parthia, Judea, Greco-Bactria, and Indo-Greek kingdoms.

Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as Serapis, and the Syrian gods Atargatis and Hadad, as well as a Jewish synagogue, all coexisting on the island of Delos alongside classical Greek deities. A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized Atargatis) and Isis-Demeter. Mystery religions became popular during the Hellenistic period. The apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes

The Hellenistic Period saw the rise of five schools of philosophy: 1) Stoicism of Zeno; 2) Epicurianism; 3) Hedonism of Aristippus the Younger: 4) Skepticism of Pyrrho of Elis; and 5) Cynicism of Diogenes Neoplatonism was a strand of Platonic philosophy that later emerged against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. Plotinus and Porphyry were two philosophers associated with Neoplatonism.

One of the cultural achievements of the Hellenistic period was the Library of Alexandria, which was estimated to have had 700,000 volumes. Hellenistic art had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great.



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The Roman Republic (and the earlier Roman Kingdom)



753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome. Period of the Roman Kingdom. Story of Romulus and Remus. In all, there are seven successive kings of Rome, the first being Romulus. He set up a Senate consisting of 100 heads of the prominent families in Rome. These became the original patricians, the ruling families of Rome.

616 B.C. Etruscan kings of Rome, three in succession, ending in 509 B.C. In this period the Servian Wall around Rome is begun, enclosing the "seven hills of Rome"; this Roman wall is begun by Etruscan king of Rome Servius Tullius. Senate size is increased to 200 members; the new 100 members are called heads of the minor patrician families, while the earlier 100 members are called the heads of the major patrician families.

509 B.C. Founding of the Roman Republic. Roman Lucius Junius Brutus leads revolt overthrowing the last king, Etruscan King Tarquin the Proud. Lucius Junius Brutus becomes one of the first two Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Senate is given primary power in Rome, composed of patricians. SPQR means "The Senate and the People of Rome."

460 B.C. The Comitia or Assembly of the Tribes is established, composed of plebeians.

450 B.C. The laws of the Twelve Tables is enacted.

390 B.C. The Celts under the chieftain Brennus defeat Rome in a battle, and proceed to sack Rome. They were called Cisalpine Gauls.

364 B.C. First Punic War with Carthage. End of the Third Punic War, the last war with Carthage, is 146 B.C. Hannibal of Carthage and Scipio Africanus of Rome. Rome defeats Carthage in all three wars, conquers all Carthage territories in Mediterranean, and annexes Sicily.

272 B.C. Rome conquers and unifies the rest of Italy, except Sicily and some regions in northern Italy. Sicily was conquered in 241 B.C., the city-state of Syracuse was conquered in 212 B.C., and northern Italy was conquered in 191 B.C.--when the Romans made Cisalpine Gaul one of its provinces.

146 B.C Rome conquers Greece.

133 B.C. Time of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, ending in 121. Optimates v.s Populares-- Roman political parties in opposition. The Gracchus brothers were tribunes, and were Populares in favor of land reform and more political power to the plebeians.

78 B.C. Sulla dies of natural causes after retirement from statesmanship. He had been a temporary dictator of Rome, reorganized the government, restored some order to Rome after difficulties in the period of Marius, and stepped down from the dictatorship--only to be elected as one of the two consuls afterwards. Politically, Sulla was an Optimate.

71 B.C. Crassus defeats slave revolt of Spartacus, but about two decades later Crassus is killed in Parthia in a failed attempt to conquer the Parthians.

63 B.C. Roman general Pompey the Great conquers Jerusalem, Palestine becomes a Roman province. Pompey conquers Syria and parts of Asia Minor

60 B.C. First Triumvirate is formed--Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.

58 B.C. Julius Caesar begins to conquer Gaul. Takes seven years to complete, and is ended when he defeats Celtic chieftain Vercingentrix near present-day Dijon, France.

49 B.C. Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon

46 B.C. Julius Caesar becomes dictator of Rome--lasts two years

44 B.C. Assassination of Julius Caesar on the floor of the Roman Senate.

43 B.C. Second Triumvirate begins--Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus

27 B.C. End of the Roman Republic; beginning of the Roman Empire,

10 B.C. Herod the Great rebuilds the temple; he was appointed as King of the Jews by the Romans--with the understanding that Herod would be Rome's vassal as a client kingdom. He's unpopular among the Jews. When he dies he is buried in a mausoleum near Bethlehem. Soon after Herod's death, the Romans appoint a series of governors (procurators) who have the real power in Judea; these governors are Romans who answer to the Roman emperor.



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Jesus Christ is born, some time around 4 B.C. and 1 A.D.

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The Roman Empire



Julio-Claudian Emperors reigns 27 B.C. to 68 A.D.—Emperor Caesar Augustus (reign 27 B.C.-14 A.D.) actual name Octavian-- grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Long reign and establishes stability as the first Roman emperor. Pax Romana. Emperor Tiberius (14-37 A.D.) He doesn’t like to govern and removes to the island Capri, leaving Sejanus to govern Rome—the latter is the prefect or head of the Praetorian Guard. Emperor Caligula (37-41 A.D.) Essentially a madman. He declares himself a god and puts a huge statue of himself in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. The Praetorian Guard eventually assassinates him. Emperor Claudius (41-54 A.D.) He’s declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. During his reign Rome takes control of Britain. Dies of poisoning by Nero’s mother—she later dies of poisoning by Nero. Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.) Another madman. Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. Nero builds himself a huge villa in the ruins with a colossal statue of himself. Nero blames the fire on the Christians and begins the Roman persecution of the Christians. Nero arranges his own death after the Roman Senate declares him an enemy of the state, to be brought to the Forum and beaten to death. Miscellaneous: Wife of Augustus is Livia, and his exiled daughter is Julia. Livia is also the mother of Tiberius; Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus. The sister of Caligula is Drusilla. The wife of Claudius is Messalina.

Flavian Emperors 69 A.D. to 96 A.D.--Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. Considered poor emperors. Emperor Vespasian (69 - 79 AD) Began the building the Roman Colosseum on the land of Nero’s palace. Made an addition to the Imperial Forum. Emperor Titus (79 -81 AD)--the son of Vespasian. Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Arch of Titus—for his victories in Jerusalem. Emperor Domitian (81 - 96 AD)-- brother of Titus. Declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. One of the heavy periods of Christian persecution. Assassinated.

Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian 96 A.D. to 138 A.D. Beginning of the succession of the “Five Good Emperors,” per Gibbon. Emperor Nerva (96- 98 AD). Declared emperor by the Roman Senate. Assures peaceful succession. The Forum of Nerva. Emperor Trajan (98- 117 AD). Conquest of Dacia (now Romania). Annexes the Nabataean Kingdom, Armenia, and Mesopotamia after a successful war with Parthia. Puts down a Jewish revolt. He extends the Roman Empire to its furthest boundary limits. The Forum of Trajan (with its major library), Trajan’s Column, and Trajan’s Market. Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138 AD). A humanist; loves things Greek. After a revolt in Britain, he constructs Hadrian’s Wall. Builds the Pantheon, and outside of Rome—Hadrian’s Villa. Ends the Jewish revolt. Builds the Mausoleum of Hadrian, now the Castel Sant'Angelo. Assures peaceful succession of the next two emperors. The four emperors—Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius—account for a combined reign of 82 years.

Antonine Emperors 138 A.D. to 192 A.D.--Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus. Emperor Antonius Pius (38 – 161 AD). Roman successful invasion of modern Scotland; Antonine Wall built. Temple Antonius and Faustina built in Roman Forum (now a church). Ambassador from India at the Roman court. Antonius Pius sent an ambassador to China. Protected the Christians throughout the empire. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 AD). Like a Stoic philosopher-king; writes the Meditations, in Greek. Wars with Parthians when they depose the Armenian king, and with the Goths when they cross the Danube. Antonine Plague in 165—perhaps smallpox, kills five million in the Roman Empire. Persecuted the Christians. Pax Romana ends in 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius—the empire begins its decline. Emperor Commodus (177 – 192 AD). Natural son of Marcus Aurelius. Considered a very poor emperor. Declared himself to be a son of the supreme Roman god Jupiter, and tried to rename Rome after himself. Commodus was assassinated, leaving an embattled succession problem—“the year of five emperors.”

Severan Emperors 193 A.D. to 235 A.D.--Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus. Emperor Septimus Severus (193 – 211 AD), Successful war in Parthia and Caledonia. Erects his Arch in the Forum. Builds huge palace on the Palatine Hill, overlooking the Circus Maximus. Dies of illness while on campaign in York, England. Emperor Caracalla (198 – 217 AD). Oldest son of Septimus Severus. Modern works portray Caracalla as a psychopathic and evil ruler. Builds the Baths of Caracalla in region south of the Forum. Murdered. Emperor Elagabalus (218 – 222 AD) Boy emperor. Murdered by Praetorian Guard. Emperor Alexander Severus (222 – 235 AD). Threats from Sassanid Empire in Persia and from the tribes of Germania. Murdered by the army.

Emperor Decius (249 – 251 AD). The persecution of Christians by Decius resulted from an edict issued in 250 by the Emperor ordering everyone in the Roman Empire to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods and the well-being of the Emperor. The edict ordered that the sacrifices be performed in the presence of a Roman magistrate, and a signed and witnessed certificate be issued to that effect/

Emperor Aurelian (reign 270-275 A.D) --Aurelian Wall built around Rome; expands upon the old Servan Wall to include the Campus Martius, some territory west of the Tiber River, areas south of the Aventine Hill, and further extensions to the east of the old wall. Vatican Hill is not protected within the Aurelian Wall, nor was it protected by the old Servan Wall.

Emperor Diocletian 284 A.D to 305 A.D Establishes the Tetrarchy in 393. Establishes price controls. War then favorable settlement with Sassanid Persians. Begins the worst Roman persecution of Christians in 302. Baths of Diocletian—located on top of the Viminal Hill, northeast of the Forum; largest of the Imperial Baths; now a Catholic Church, Santa Maria of the Angels and Martyrs. Abdicated and retired to his palace in Dalmatia in 305—modern city of Split in Croatia. Died in 312.

Emperor Maxentius 305 A.D to 312 A.D A rival of Constantine. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision sent by the Christian God, which was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of the Chi-Rho was painted on the soldiers' shields. Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in northern Rome in 312, where Maxentius perished by drowning in the Tiber River.

Emperor Constantine the Great 312 A.D to 337 A.D

313 A.D. Emperor Constantine issues the Edict of Milan ending the persecution of Christians.

325 A.D. Council of Nicaea established by the Emperor Constantine in which the bishops enunciate the creed of Christians. Arianism rejected.

330 A.D. Constantine the Great moved his capital to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople, city of Constantine. This becomes the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Constantine quells civil wars during much of his reign.

332 A.D. Constantine defeats the Goths in the eastern part of the Empire. He then defeated the Sarmatians, an Indo-European people who spoke Scythian (an Iranian language) and who once lived north of Persia.

337 A.D. Constantine the Great dies. His three sons divide the Empire between them. Constantine dies a Nicene Christian.

342 A.D Pagan sacrifice banned in Rome.

361 A.D. Emperor Julian the Apostate tries to reestablish paganism in Rome. He’s a Neoplatonist who dabbles a lot in mystic cults. He is emperor for about two years, and died in battle.

378 A.D. Visigoth barbarians defeat the Roman army of the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (in Thrace, once part of Bulgaria). Valens is slain in the battle. The Goths had crossed the Danube in 376, sparking the war with Rome. The Goths are granted territories in Thrace after virtually winning the war with Rome.

380 A.D. Emperor Theodosius declares Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica. He specified that Christianity of the Council of Nicaea, not Arianism, was the official religion.

400 A.D. Emperor moves the capital from Rome to Ravenna. The fall of Rome is by now looking imminent by a sort of domino effect. It begins in c. 375 A.D with the Huns., who were residing to the area north of the Caspian Sea, pushing westward. The Huns displace the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals who all were living in a large swath of territory from north of the Black Sea to north of Greece. This puts them in conflict with Rome. Each takes their turn in sacking Rome in the 400s and 500s.

406 A.D. Vandals and other Germanic barbarians cross the Rhine, sparking war with Rome. St. Augustine dies in the attack of the Vandals upon his city.

410 A.D Sack of Rome by Alaric and his Visigoth barbarians. End of Roman rule in Britain the same year, as army legions are needed closer to Rome to protect the city. With Britain unprotected, the Angle, Saxon, and Jute barbarians invade and settle in what becomes England in the 440s. Also feeling pressure from the Huns, the Franks move from the northern Rhineland into Roman Gaul in the 450s, and take control of what becomes northern France

452 A.D. Attack by Attila the Hun and his barbarians. He is stopped outside of Rome by Pope Leo the Great and a miraculous vision protecting the city.

455 A.D. Sack of Rome by Genseric and his Vandal barbarians.

476 A.D. Fall of Rome—the official date. Last Roman Emperor of the West abdicates under pressure from the Arian Goth Odoacer. Theodoric and the Ostrogoth barbarians take control of the region. End of the Roman Empire. Rome is sacked by the Ostrogoths under Totila in 546 A.D. The last Roman Emperor was Romulus Augustus; it is a mystery what became of him after 476—some sources say he was exiled and may have lived until 506 A.D.