Jesus, the Kingdom of God, and Ancient Netherworlds

Jesus, the Kingdom of God, and Ancient Netherworlds



When Jesus began his public ministry, among the first things he did was was proclaim that the Kingdom of God was at hand. He boldly talked about human accessibility to Heaven and Paradise, eternal happiness. These ideas didn't exist in Abrahamic or Mosaic Judaism. The Hebrews believed that the afterlife consisted of a dark, dreary, and shadowy Sheol below the earth, a kingdom of the dead whether one was good or bad. Jesus, on the other hand, talked of eternal life, where we could be in the light of close proximity to God.

Jesus often spoke of the Kingdom of God in parables. Paul the Apostle was more specific. He spoke of heaven as being paradisiacal, more pleasant than words can describe. He also spoke of us having glorified bodies there. Modern theologians speak of heaven as a place where there is profound Divine love, unlike anyplace else in existence.

These kinds of ideas did not exist in Hebrew Judaism, but began to grow in the postexilic period. They certainly did not exist in the afterlife systems of the ancient pagan world. And that is what this historical essay is about. It is a review of the afterlife systems of numerous of the ancient religious/mythological systems. In short, this describes the ancient netherworlds.

The kingdoms of the dead in Judaism and these four pagan religious/mythological systems of ancient times will be examined.

* The Sheol of Hebrew Judaism
* Netherworld of the Babylonians
* The Egyptian netherworld
* Hades--the netherworld of the Greeks
* Infernus--the Roman netherworld


After discussing these manifestations of the afterlife, the Christian afterlife will be explored. The kingdom of God. Heaven and Paradise. When the comparisons are made, the significance of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross is easier the grasp.



The Sheol of Hebrew Judaism


The Sheol, as mentioned above, was the abode of the dead in ancient Judaism. It was centered deep in the earth, and was a place of darkness and silence. The Sheol is described in the Bible between the time of Genesis to the postexilic period. Whether one was good or bad, a king or a pauper, when one died, their spirit was transported to the Sheol. There the spirit was as a shadow, or a shade. There were no lofty emotions or activities in the Sheol--it was a place of oblivion. Sometimes referred as the "nether world" in some translations of the Bible.

The range of translations can be seen in Psalm 6:6. The New American Bible: "For in death there is no remembrance of you. Who praises you in Sheol?" The Douay-Confraternity translated Sheol into "nether world." The Knox Bible of Westminster translated the Sheol in "the tomb." The Latin Vulgate uses "inferno"--the Latin word for Hell.

The souls of the good and the bad went to the Sheol. For instance, in Genesis 37, when Jacob was told that his son Joseph was dead, he said "I will go down mourning to my son in Sheol." Likewise the bad. For instance, in Numbers 16, Korah leads a faction in rebellion against Moses. God opens the ground up, Korah and his whole faction are swallowed up by the earth, and they fall into the Sheol.

In chapter 38 of Isaiah, King Hezekiah says that he worried he would not recover from a life-threatening illness--"In the noontime of life I said, I must depart! To the gates of Sheol I have been consigned for the rest of my years." Hezekiah gave this description of the Hebrew netherworld and its relation to God: "For it is not Sheol that gives you thanks, nor death that praises you; Neither do those who go down into the pit await your kindness." (The Sheol was often described as the "pit" or the "abyss" on the Bible.)

Gehenna is another reference to the Sheol in the Bible. It was a valley to the south of Jerusalem. It served as a garbage dump, and a constant fire was burning there. In early times it was notorious as a worship spot of the pagan god Moloch for the people in the Jerusalem area. They offered their children as human sacrifice to Moloch. The place served as a Tophet.

During the Babylonian exile, the prophets began to speak differently about the netherworld. The Second Temple period, from 500 B.C to 70 A.D., produced writings that were far more hopeful than were the original concepts of the Sheol. Two ideas came into the theology. First, those who were good could possibly look forward to a paradisiacal existence after death (and those were bad would continue onto an unhappy existence in the Sheol). Second, those who were good would raise from the dead from their graves.

In Daniel chapter 12, the prophet reports that in some future time: "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake; Some to everlasting life, others to reproach and everlasting disgrace. But those with insight shall shine brightly like the splendor of the firmament, And those who lead the many to justice shall be like the stars forever."

In the 37th chapter of Ezekiel it says: "Thus says the Lord GOD: Look! I am going to open your graves; I will make you come up out of your graves, my people, and bring you back to the land of Israel. You shall know that I am the LORD, when I open your graves and make you come up out of them, my people!. I will put my spirit in you that you may come to life, and I will settle you in your land. Then you shall know that I am the LORD. I have spoken; I will do it—oracle of the LORD." Earlier, in chapter 36, the prophecy of the Lord says: "I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you. I will remove the heart of stone from your flesh and give you a heart of flesh. I will put my spirit within you so that you walk in my statutes, observe my ordinances, and keep them...I will deliver you from all your impurities. I will summon the grain and make it plentiful; I will not send famine against you."

It is not stated in the Old Testament when these changes to the Jewish afterlife and netherworld will happen. In the Catholic teachings the changes happened between the Crucifixion, Easter, and the Ascension.



Netherworld of the Babylonians



As shall be seen, the netherworld of ancient southern Mesopotamia had many shared characteristics with the Sheol of the early Hebrew Bible. This might be expected in that the time period was the same, and Abraham came originally from lower Mesopotamia.

What do we mean by lower Mesopotamia? In the third millennium B.C., the development of civilization occurred in this area by way of the city-states of Sumer, as in Uruk, Eridu, Babel, and Ur. Around 2250 B.C., Sargon the Great of Akkad conquered all of Sumer, and developed one of the early territorial states in world history. Around 1800 B.C., the region become part of the early Babylonian empire..

Much of the information about the afterlife as believed by people of Babylon can be found in humanity's first great work of literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh. This story influenced the thinking in Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and further north in Mesopotamia, in Assyria. Toward the end of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the eponymous character becomes very concerned with the netherworld and seeks to find more and more information about it.

The Epic of Gilgamesh was written in Sumer in perhaps 2300 B.C. Even before that, in perhaps 2600 B.C., a poem was written in Sumer called The Descent of Inanna into the Underworld. This poem also had some description of the Mesopotamian netherworld. Inanna was the goddess of love and sensuality in the pantheon of Sumer. Her counterpart in the Babylonian pantheon was Ishtar. There was a similar poem written in Old Babylonian and with fewer lines called The Descent of the Goddess Ishtar into the Lower World.

Below is the beginning of the latter poem describing Ishtar's travel to Irkalla, the Babylonian netherworld. The god Sin was the Babylonian god of the moon.

To the land of no return, the land of darkness,
Ishtar, the daughter of Sin directed her thought,
Directed her thought, Ishtar, the daughter of Sin,
To the house of shadows, the dwelling, of Irkalla,
To the house without exit for him who enters therein,
To the road, whence there is no turning,
To the house without light for him who enters therein,
The place where dust is their nourishment, clay their food.'
They have no light, in darkness they dwell.
Clothed like birds, with wings as garments,
Over door and bolt, dust has gathered.
Ishtar on arriving at the gate of the land of no return,
To the gatekeeper thus addressed herself:
"Gatekeeper, ho, open thy gate!
Open thy gate that I may enter!


In the Babylonian poem, the netherworld has seven gates. Past the seventh gate can be found Ereshkigal, the Babylonian goddess who rules the netherworld. In European literature, Ereshkigal would be similar to the Queen of Night. Below is more about the Babylonian netherworld from the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Upon death, Babylonians believed their spirit became a ghostlike entity, called a Gidim. Only a few mortals escaped this and were promoted to the assembly of gods. The underworld was very unpleasant. In the story, Gilgamesh's dead friend Enkidu’s spirit rises up from the netherworld. "Gilgamesh inquires about the Nether World. Enkidu tells him that it is terrible and that if he tells Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh will sit down and weep. Gilgamesh implores Enkidu to tell him anyway. Enkidu says that vermin eat at his body."

In the underworld there was a pile of crowns. Every dead king of the world, except a few, resided in the underworld. And too, the high priests, acolytes, priests of incantation and of ecstasy, and the servers of the temple were there. All in this miserable existence. One must not cause attention to oneself in the underworld or it will arouse the "Cry of the Dead."

An example in the Babylonian mythology of someone who avoided this awful afterlife by being promoted to the assembly of gods was Gilgamesh himself, who achieved the the status of a minor god. There were not many who reached this level. The vast majority of people were put into the Babylonian underworld when they died. Well, according to the mythology.



The Egyptian Netherworld



In ancient Egyptian mythology, a larger number of people were able to reach a blessed afterlife--though it still consisted of a small minority. Some sources suggest that to reach a blessed afterlife one needed to be well-heeled enough to be able to afford a personalized version of the Egyptian Book of the Dead to help them to pass the various tests required to be happy in the afterlife.

Another important point is that the concept of the netherworld in Egypt changed over time. Ancient Egypt existed for over 3,000 years. An example of what is being said here is that the Egyptian Book of the Dead dated to the period of the New Kingdom--about 1500 B.C. The early dynasties of Egypt extended 1,500 earlier than that.

Duat was the name of the realm of the dead in ancient Egyptian mythology. It was ruled over by the Egyptian god Osiris. Duat was divided into twelve regions, varying from the paradisiacal Field of Rushes to the hellish Lake of Fire. The soul of the deceased person, believed to be contained in the heart, had to pass through the regions and be tested to qualify for residence in the Field of Rushes.

Wikipedia has this to say below about Duat, the ancient Egyptian netherworld--with a reference to a book published by the University of Chicago:

According to an ancient Egyptian burial text, "the underworld consists of twelve regions signifying the twelve hours of [Ra] the sun god's journey through it, battling [the god of chaos] in order to bring order back to the earth in the morning; as his rays illuminated the Duat throughout the journey, they revived the dead who occupied the underworld and let them enjoy life after death in that hour of the night when they were in the presence of the sun god, after which they went back to their sleep waiting for the god's return the following night."

(As background information, the Egyptians believed that Ra the sun god was in the heavens for twelve hours during daylight, and then took to sun to the underworld for twelve hours during the night. Thus, Ra and the sun rose in the east, and set in the west. and traveled across the underworld throughout the night. Then rose again in the east the next morning.)

After succeeding numerous tests and challenges posed by demons and other beings, the soul of the deceased in Duat must must undergo the weighing of the heart before Osiris. The deceased is brought before the ruler of the netherworld by Anubis, the god of death, who has a weighing scale upon which the deceased's heart is on one of the pans. On other pan is the feather of Ma'at, the goddess of order, balance, and harmony. If the heart is heavier than the feather, then the soul is devoured by Ammit, a demon with a huge crocodile head.

This last phenomena amounted to the non-existence of the deceased soul. The being ceased to exist. If, however, the deceased passed the weighing of the heart test, the soul would proceed to the paradisal Field of Rushes. Again, it would seem that a minority of Egyptians found this eternal bliss--there were so many barriers standing in the way.



Hades--the Netherworld of the Greeks



The kingdom of the dead among the ancient Greeks was called Hades--also the name of its ruling god. It was possible to reach a blessed afterlife, but the path was arduous and long. Homer in the Odyssey writes a segment where Ulysses travels to the underworld. There Ulysses meets the spirit of the the deceased Achilles, and exclaims that surely Achilles must be in a state of bliss. But Achilles says not, by replying, "Nay, seek not to speak soothingly to me of death, glorious Odysseus. I should choose, so I might live on earth, to serve as the hireling of another, of some portionless man whose livelihood was but small, rather than to be lord over all the dead that have perished."

The entrance to the Greek underworld was said to be a cave leading to the depths of the earth. In front of the cave was Thanatos, the god of death. Also, there were personifications of Grief, Agony, Anxiety, and others. Near the entrance were beasts and monsters, such as Centaurs, Scylla, and Gorgons. The soul the of deceased person was led to a swamp on the River Styx, the river of hatred in the underworld. There countless souls remain as shadows until they are able to make some progress.

In order to cross the River Styx to where they will receive judgment. the souls must rely on the help of Charon the Ferryman and his boat. But Charon insists on payment of a coin. In practice, the Greeks buried their dead with a coin under their tongue--the coin to be used to pay Charon. The souls without the coin would remain on the banks of the River Styx for eternity. Sometimes Charon would accept a Golden Bough for payment. And sometimes Charon would ferry souls across the River Acheron, the river of pain.

Once Charon had crossed the River Styx with the boatload of deceased souls, they were at the Gates of Hades where they would find judgment and then a destination. At the gates was Cerberus, a ferocious three headed dog that prevented the souls from dodging judgment. To quote Wikipedia: "In the Greek underworld, the souls of the dead still existed, but they are insubstantial, and flitted around the underworld with no sense of purpose. The dead within the Homeric underworld lack menos, or strength, and therefore they cannot influence those on earth. They also lack phrenes, or wit, and are heedless of what goes on around them and on the earth above them. Their lives in the underworld were very neutral, so all social statuses and political positions were eliminated and no one was able to use their previous lives to their advantage in the underworld."

The souls of the deceased were examined by the Judges of the underworld, and based on these considerations were sent to one of three destinations. The wicked were sent to Tartarus, the abyss, the deepest and darkest part of the Greek underworld. Tartarus was full of unhappiness and divine punishment. The three harpies called the Furies afflicted panful vengeances on those who engaged in wicked acts.

On the happy side of things, there was Elysium--sometimes called the Elysian Fields. Those who lived distinguished lives went there. It was paradisiacal. No labor. A blessed and happy life. Doing what you enjoy. In the early period of Greek history, only demigods and heroes were. admitted. Later, the gods also chose people who lived particularly virtuous lives to be in Elysium.

The Asphodel Meadows was the place in the Greek netherworld where the vast majority of deceased souls resided. These were ordinary spirits who weren't wicked, but did not achieve greatness. Things in the Asphodel Meadows were not like a paradise, but also were not punitive. Daily existence there was full of apathy and indifference. At worst, the gloom of monotony was ever-present.

There were numerous other features of the Greek netherworld and of some these will be discussed in the next section.



Infernus--the Roman Netherworld



The ancient Romans' afterlife took place in Infernus, which was derived from the Latin word for underground. Infernus had many of the same characteristics as Hades of the Greeks, which is not surprising when one considers that the Greeks had settled colonies in Southern Italy at about the time that Rome and the Latin villages were first developing. (Likewise Babylon's netherworld had many of the same features as nearby Sumer, the city-state system that preceded Babylon.)

The Roman god Pluto governed the Roman netherworld. Dis Pater, another Roman god, also had a key role in Infernus. The Romans had the myth regarding Persephone, but the Roman name for the goddess was Proserpina. A major source of information about the Roman netherworld can be found in Book VI of the Aeneid by Virgil. Some summary information from this work will be given below.

Aeneas was a Trojan hero during The Trojan Wars with Greece, in the ancient days before history was carefully recorded. When the Greeks were able to enter Troy and destroy it, Aeneas was able to escape, gather some men, and set sale westward, landing in Carthage, and then in Italy. This is hundreds of years before Rome is founded. In fact, Aeneas becomes an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. Virgil's epic poem The Aeneid, is about Aeneas's adventures in making his way to Italy. Whereas Homer wrote his epics in Greek. Virgil's is written in Latin.

By the time Aeneas reached Italy, he and his men had been through many many trials and tribulations. His intent was to form a kingdom somewhere in Italy for the Trojans. He sought the help of the gods and of spirits to get a sense of destiny in this endeavor. He wished to go to the underworld to talk to his deceased father for an understanding of things. He was also determined to seek the help of the Sibyl of Apollo at Cumae, near Naples. This set the stage for Aeneas's trip to the Roman underworld.

The Cumaen Sibyl told Aeneas that Apollo prophesied that Aeneas's ambition to form a Trojan kingdom in Italy would succeed, but first they would need to fight a terrible war. The Cumaen Sibyl also said that she would help Aeneas reach the Roman netherworld, but first he would need to fetch a Golden Bough. After some effort, Aeneas achieved the quest of obtaining a Golden Bough. Thus, Aeneas and the Cumaen Sibyl set off for Infernus, the Roman kingdom of the dead

The first set of images of the Roman underworld match those of the Greek underworld. At the entrance are spiritual monsters representing Hunger, War, and Discord. Further down is Charon and the River Styx. Thousands and thousands of shadowy souls are standing aimlessly because they are unable to pay the fare for crossing the River Styx. Aeneas is horrified upon hearing the wailing of thousands of suffering souls. Later, Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter the three-headed guard dog Cerberus, who is pacified by a piece of drugged cake.

Aeneas sees the Fields of Mourning, where heart-broken people who were unsuccessful at love wander. Next is a field of heroes--those who distinguished themselves in battle. Further, Aeneas sees region of Tartarus and Erebus. There, wicked souls are tortured.

Finally, Aeneas reaches the Blessed Groves, where his deceased father wandered. His father assures Aeneas of the importance of his mission of founding of a Trojan kingdom in Italy. He tells his son that his descendants would include Romulus and Remus, who would found Rome. And that his descendants would also include the great Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus.

It can be mentioned parenthetically, that in both Greek and Roman mythology there was a River Lethe in their netherworld. In the River Lethe, souls bathed themselves in order to forget their memories of previous lives.

Summing it up, the Roman netherworld was like the Greek netherworld in that things were mostly grim and disturbing. Some made it to a happy afterlife, but these were mostly of the heroic type.



Jesus and the Kingdom of God



According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "There is a heaven, i.e., God will bestow happiness and the richest gifts on all those who depart this life free from original sin and personal mortal sin, and who are, consequently, in the state of justice and friendship with God...The bliss of heaven is eternal and consists primarily in the possession of God, and heaven presupposes a condition of perfect happiness, in which every wish of the heart finds adequate satisfaction."

When Jesus spoke of the kingdom of God, he was describing heaven, or perhaps paradise as he said. on the cross. When Jesus spoke to Pilate, he said his kingdom was not of this world. Heaven as Jesus described it was almost to good to be true. The whole point of describing the netherworlds of the ancient world has been to enable one to see how wonderful the afterlife promised by Jesus was compared in contrast to the afterlife of the other ancient religions or mythologies.

Again from the Catholic Encyclopedia, "In heaven the just will see God by direct intuition, clearly and distinctly. Here on earth we have no immediate perception of God; we see Him but indirectly in the mirror of creation. We get our first and direct knowledge from creatures, and then, by reasoning from these, we ascend to a knowledge of God according to the imperfect likeness which creatures bear to their Creator. But in doing so we proceed to a large extent by way of negation, i.e., by removing from the Divine Being the imperfections proper to creatures. In heaven, however, no creature will stand between God and the soul. He himself will be the immediate object of its vision."

Furthermore, "theologians deem more appropriate that there should be a special and glorious abode [in heaven], in which the blessed have their peculiar home and where they usually abide, even though they be free to go about in this world...At the end of the world, the earth together with the celestial bodies will be gloriously transformed into a part of the dwelling-place of the blessed."

Another key point in the Christian view of the afterlife is the doctrine of the glorified body. As referenced in St. Paul's 1 Corinthians chapter 15, at the end of the world our souls will be reunited with our bodies, but our bodies will be transformed. They will be glorified bodies. Theologians have interpreted scripture to say that our glorified bodies will have four characteristics, as described below.

1) Impassibility – the glorified body will no longer suffer physical pain, sickness, or death 2) Subtlety--meaning that we will have a spiritualized nature in the sense of a spiritual body, as did our Lord Christ’s glorified body which was able to pass through closed doors. 3) Agility – the glorified body will obey the soul with the greatest ease and speed of movement. travel great distances in an instant. 4) Clarity – the glorified body will be free from any deformity and will be filled with beauty and radiance

One modern theological writer quotes Aquinas to describe the promise of a glorified body:

St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Contra Gentiles, IV, 86 summarized: 'thus also will his body be raised to the characteristics of heavenly bodies — it will be lightsome (clarity), incapable of suffering (impassible), without difficulty and labor in movement (agility), and most perfectly perfected by its form (subtlety). For this reason, the Apostle speaks of the bodies of the risen as heavenly, referring not to their nature, but to their glory.'"



SOURCES



Netherworld https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/netherworld

Encyclopedia Britannica--Death--Mesopotamia, Hell

Catholic Encyclopedia--Terrestrial Paradise, Limbo, Purgatory, Hell



Wikipedia Articles--Afterlife, Greek underworld, Empyrean, Paradise, Limbo, Third Heaven, Seven Heavens, Paradiso (Dante), Purgatorio, The Earthly Paradise, Daniel's final vision, Duat, Aeneas, Underworld, Sheol, Dumuzid, The City of God, Golden Legend, Christian angelology, Apocalyptic literature, Uruk,



The New American Bible--Ezekiel Chapter 37; Ezekiel Chapter 36; Ezekiel Chapter 31; Ezekiel Chapter 26; Isaiah Chapter 38; Daniel Chapter 12; Baruch Chapter 4; Psalm 6; Psalm 30; 1 Corinthians Chapter 15;

GLORIFIED BODY https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/glorified-body

Four Properties of a Glorified Resurrected Human Body https://taylormarshall.com/2012/10/do-you-know-four-properties-of.html

The Epic of Gilgamesh Summary and Analysis of Tablet XII https://www.gradesaver.com/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/study-guide/summary-tablet-xii

Descent Of Inanna http://people.uncw.edu/deagona/myth/Descent%20Of%20Inanna.pdf

Gilgames Epic Tablet XII - Sumerian Cosmology https://www.academia.edu/40144373/Gilgames_Epic_Tablet_XII_Sumerian_Cosmology

THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH http://www.aina.org/books/eog/eog.htm

The Descent of Inanna into the Underworld: A 5,500-Year-Old Literary Masterpiece https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/descent-inanna-underworld-5500-year-old-literary-masterpiece-007296

DESCENT OF THE GODDESS ISHTAR INTO THE LOWER WORLD https://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/ishtar.htm

Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world: translation https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1814.htm

HOMER, ODYSSEY 11 https://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerOdyssey11.html

Sparknotes--Homer, The Odyssey, Books 10–11 https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/odyssey/section6/

Roman Underworld http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-gods/roman-underworld.htm

The Aeneid, by Virgil https://www.gutenberg.org/files/228/228-h/228-h.htm

LitCharts--The Aeneid, by Virgil https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-aeneid/book-6

Sparknotes--The Aeneid, by Virgil Book VI https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/aeneid/section6/

CliffNotes--Virgil's Aeneid, Summary and Analysis Book VI https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/a/aeneid/summary-and-analysis/book-vi


Courses on Ancient Egypt at https://www.coursera.org/ 1) Introduction to Ancient Egypt and Its Civilization 2) Wonders of Ancient Egypt --by University of Pennsylvania

More to come.

Ancient History Timeline

Ancient History Timeline



The story of mankind in ancient history also includes the chapters of man's prehistory, before writing systems had been developed. Before science, it was thought that the dawn of man was some 6,000 years ago, about 4000 B.C. According to science, the dawn of man was some 200,000 years ago, and that there were lesser hominid creatures before that. When it comes to things like this, science is in a very weak position because it does not assume the existence of an Almighty God. These history timelines do assume the existence of such an Almighty God. According to the Old and New Testaments, a thousand years are as a single day in the time-clock of God. So in God's time, 365,000 man-years of science could fit into one year in the calendar of the Almighty. The prehistory of mankind would be within such a calendar. The story of man and part of his prehistory, begins here about 6,000 years ago. Some of the dating reckoned by science of prehistory events of mankind are also included below, for comparative purposes.

Scriptural references--Psalm 90, v. 4 and 2 Peter, 3:8.



--Prehistory of Man

200,000 B.C.--First Homo Sapiens appear, according to science. Human Beings.

200,000 B.C.--Paleolithic Period--Old Stone Age; the dating according to science.

50,000 B.C.--Mesolithic Period--Middle Stone Age

10,000 B.C.-- Neolithic Period--New Stone Age

15,000 B.C. Cave Paintings in Southwest France; the dating by science
10,000 B.C. End of the last Ice Age
10,000 B.C. Gobekli Tepe--southeastern Turkey, an early temple, perhaps for burial rites and ancestor worship
8000 B.C. Catal Huyuk--in Turkey, about 400 miles west of Gobekli Tepe; near obsidian rock quarries for stone tools; house units combined together with entrance on roofs. A hunter-gatherer community; no evidence of agriculture or pastoral activity.
8000 B.C. Neolithic Revolution of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry begins
5000 B.C. Village Settlement at Tell-es-Sawwan on Tigris River, Mesopotamia; the dating according to science. Small walled settlement with individual houses; a "palace" for the chieftain; a small temple structure; a granary and area for animals. About 200 people
5000 B.C Copper Age begins--end of the Stone Age (Neolithic Period ends), dating reckoned by science.


4000 B.C. Beginning of cities on the Euphrates River at Uruk and others, Sumer 3500 B.C. Wheel invented in Sumer, Mesopotamia

3500 B.C Bronze Age begins

1500 B.C Iron Age begins.

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--History of Mankind



Early Civilizations Develop around the World



3000 B.C Writing first appears in Uruk and Sumer, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers--Mesopotamia. History begins. Writing is in cuneiform script on clay tablets. Sumerian written language develops; it is not Semitic or Indo-European, and is not part of any other language family.

3000 B.C. The Pharaoh Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt, capitals of Memphis and Thebes. Begins the First Dynasty--the Old Kingdom (3000 B.C. to 2181 B.C., Dynasties 1 thru 6); The Middle Kingdom (2055 B.C. to 1650 B.C., Dynasty 12); New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C., Dynasties 18 thru 20). In between the Kingdom periods are Intermediate Periods of instability and invasions; order and harmony, Ma'at, are lost. Before 3000 is the Predynastic Period, with the Scorpion King. Written hieroglyphics is developed, so ancients Egyptians can record events and transactions. Civilization develops along the fertile banks of the Nile.

3000 B.C Indus River civilization begins in India. Significant cities develop in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. A writing system develops which are now undecipherable. Archeologists have found huge ruins in these areas.

3000 B.C In Ireland, the Newgrange passage grave is built in County Meath, and dolmens are erected throughout the island. In England, Stonehenge is built on Salisbury plain. In Brittany, France a complex alignment of standing stone monuments are built at Carnac.

3000 B.C. In the region north of the Black Sea, the Yamna culture is growing using Copper Age technologies. This is the culture that first develops the proto Indo-European language. This culture divides further and expands both into the Danube region, and also into Bactria (current Afghanistan). From these areas, Indo-European languages spreads to Europe and India.

1900 B.C. Minoan culture on Crete; Palatial Period; Knossos is capital; Linear A writing--not yet decipherable. A proto-Greek Aegean culture. Minoan was not Indo-European language—it belonged to no known family of languages.

1750 B.C. China--Shang Dynasty begins. Developments along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. Early Chinese writing is developing.

1600 B.C. Mycenaean culture on the Greek mainland. Beginnings of Greek civilization. Indo-European. Linear B writing--some is decipherable.

1500 B.C. Olmec civilization in Mexico. They grow maize corn, and carve huge heads of basalt stone. Descendants of Asiatic peoples who crossed the Bering Straits land-bridge into North America before the end of the last Ice Age. In Peru in 900 B.C., the Chavin culture grows potatoes and domesticates llamas. Later comes the Nazca culture. Norte Chico culture.

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Early Mesopotamia



2800 B.C. Gilgamesh in city-state of Uruk in Sumer--legendary time he lived in Mesopotamia. Uruk was a walled city on the Euphrates River. It had a large temple to the goddess Ishtar (Inanna) and a “White Temple” dedicated to the sky-god Anu. Uruk is a center of trade, agriculture, and learning. Experts think this was the first fully-functioning city in history. In Genesis of the Old Testament, Uruk is referred as Erech or Arach, depending on the translation. In Sumer, lower Mesopotamia, many independent cities develop.

2350 B.C. Sargon the Great of the city of Akkad conquers all the city-states in Sumer, and establishes an Akkadian Empire. The people of Akkad speak a Semitic language, and it replaces Sumerian; though they still use a cuneiform script on clay tablets for writing.

2000 B.C. Powerful dynasty in Sumerian city-state of Ur re-emerges. They build a huge ziggurat temple to the moon god, perhaps similar to the Tower of Babel. The Biblical Abraham came from here soon thereafter.

1800 B.C. Babylon conquers and establishes an empire all up and down Mesopotamia. (The city of Babylon was on the Euphrates River, about 53 miles south of the present Baghdad.) Amorite peoples are key to establishing this first Babylonian Empire. Babylonian King Hammurabi sets up a legal code, one of the earliest legal codes in history. After the death of Hammurabi, the barbarian Kassites conquer Babylon; they rule until the Assyrian Empire takes command the region of lower Mesopotamia.



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Egypt's Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom



2686 B.C. End of the Second Dynasty in Egypt. The first two dynasties (3000 to 2686 ) are often called the Early Dynastic Period.

2500 B.C . Pyramids of Giza built in Egypt; for Pharoahs Khufu (Cheops), Kafre, and Menkare. Sphinx also built at this time. This was the time of the powerful 4th Dynasty (2613 B.C.- 2494 B.C.) of the Old Kingdom, with five major pharaohs and also minor ones. Main capital is in Mempis--in the northern part of the Nile.

2181 B.C First Intermediate Period begins. Anarchy descends as nobles acting as warlords in the old northern and southern kingdoms gain independence from pharaoh. Even the capitals of Memphis and Thebes are lost from the pharaoh, who governs only an area around Heracleopis.

2055 B.C Middle Kingdom begins, lasts until 1650 B.C. Princes of Thebes regain Egypt from the warlord nobles; the pharaoh is in control again. A great necropolis is built at Abydos, and more concerns about the afterlife is evident. Main capital moves to Thebes, in the southern part of the Nile in Egypt.

1650 B.C. Second Intermediate Period begins. Chaos and disorder come to Egypt with the invasion of the Hyksos people and the south is taken over by the Kushites. Period ends with the beginning of the New Kingdom in 1550 B.C.





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Early Story of the Jewish Peoples



1850 B.C. Abraham--about the date of his time and the founding of the Jewish people.

1230 B.C. Moses--about the date of his time

1000 B.C. David--about the date of his time. David makes Jerusalem the capital of the Jewish Kingdom.

950 B.C. Solomon--about the date of his time. Solomon builds the first temple. Also a lavish palace.

930 B.C. Jewish State splits into Northern Kingdom with the capital of Samaria, and the Southern Kingdom with the capital of Jerusalem.

722 B.C. Fall of Northern Kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians.

587 B.C. Fall of Southern Kingdom of Judah to the Babylonians.

539 B.C. Persians conquer Babylon. Persian king frees Jews there.

c. 450 BC Under Ezra, Jews have a semi-independent kingdom protected by the Persians.

323 BC. Death of Alexander the Great means that the Jewish kingdom must undergo tension as Henllenized Greek culture and dominance make their way to Judea.

166 B.C. Judas Maccabee revolt against Seleucid empire of Hellenized pagans.

110 B.C. The Hasmonean Kingdom is an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea, run by the Maccabees. Lasts until Rome conquers Judea in 63 B.C.

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Egypt's New Kingdom



1550 B.C. Egypt's powerful 18th Dynasty begins-- Pharaohs Ahmose I, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, and Queens Hatshepsut and Nefertiti. Beginning of the New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C.), with the main capital at Thebes.. Pharaoh Thutmose III wins the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 B.C. in present-day Israel; he defeats the peoples of Canaan and the Mitanni--Egypt gains control of Judea. Huge temple complex at Karnak, near Thebes (modern Luxur). Valley of Kings royal necropolis is built near Thebes. Queen Hatshepsut has a huge tomb complex.

1500 B.C. The Hittites emerge as a powerful state in Asia Minor. Capital at Hattusa--archeologists have found the ruins of the city. Hittites spoke an Indo-European language; archeologists have found a library of their writings, and some of it is decipherable. Hittites were first to use iron weapons. By the 1300s BC under King Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite Empire encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The Hittites and the Egyptians of the New Kingdom become rivals for world domination—well, the world from their perspective.

1292 B.C. Egypt's powerful 19th Dynasty begins--Pharaohs Rameses II, Seti I, and Merneptah. Ramses II wins the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C. in Syria; he defeats the Hittites and their King Muwatalli II--the aftermath results in history's first peace treaty. Battles with the Sea Peoples towards the end, during the reign of Ramsess III.

1069 B.C. Third Intermediate Period begins; lasts until 664 B.C. Chaos and disorder again in Egypt. Sea People cause havoc during the Bronze Age Collapse. Nubians take the throne at c. 715 B.C., with Ethiopian Shesbonk as king.

664 B.C. Late Period begins; lasts until Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. At some times native Egyptians become pharaoh once again, although outside empires are able to conquer Egypt. During the Late Period, the Assyrians conquer Egypt in 670 B.C., and the Persians conquer Egypt in 525 B.C.

850 B.C. Homer in Greece

753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome.



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The Assyrian Empire and the New Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia



New Assyrian Empire



c. 2025-1378 BC Old Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire. Two hundred years before this, the Assyrian kings lived in tents. Ushpia was the last Assyrian king to live in a tent--living as a nomad. King Ushpia was designated by later Assyrians as the founder of the temple dedicated to Ashur in the city of Aššur.

1365-1050 BC Middle Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire.

911 B.C. Beginning point of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Iron Age Empire. During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language. . The Assyrian priests also spoke Sumerian, believing the gods of Assyria spoke the language of ancient Sumer.

883 BC King Ashurnasirpal II’s reign begins, rules until 859 BC. He began a large move of expansion and conquest, exacting tribute from many areas. He moved his capital to the city of Nimrud (from Assur).

859 BC Shalmaneser III’s reign begins, rules until 824 BC. Continues the expansion and conquest campaign of his father, Ashurnasirpal. Captures Babylon and areas of Arameans in Syria. King of Northern Jewish kingdom does homage to Shalmaneser III. He builds a palace at Nimrud.

744 BC Tiglath-Pileser III’s reign begins, rules until 727 BC. Biblical. He introduced advanced civil, military, and political systems into the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Changes to the Assyrian government and administration of the provinces, considerably improving governance of the empire. Developed Assyria's first professional standing army. Nearly doubled the size of the Assyrian Empire., which now included Babylon. Seized Damascus and made inroads to conquering the Northern Jewish Kingdom. Deported many Jews into the Assyrian Empire.

727 BC Shalmaneser V’s reign begins, rules until 722 BC. Biblical. Son of Tiglath-Pileser III. After three years of siege he took the city of Samaria, and thus conquered the Northern Jewish Kingdom of Israel. The Jewish populations he deported to various lands of the empire, (together with ones deported about ten years earlier by Tiglath-Pileser III) are known as the "Ten Lost Tribes" of Israel. The pagan populations he settled in Samaria instead form the origins of the Samaritans

721–BC Sargon II’s reign begins, rules until 705 Biblical Another son of Tiglath-Pileser III. Sargon was beset with widespread rebellions by the beginning of his rule. The Biblical Merdodach-Baladan, a chieftain of the Chaldean tribes of the south, declared himself king of Babylon in 721 BC. A year later, Sargon and Merdodach-Baladan battled east of Babylon. Babylon was supported by Elam. The Elamite troops checked the Assyrian army, and Merdodach-Baladan retained control of the south and the title of king of Babylon. Syro-Hittite city of Carchemish rebelled. Sargon II killed by the Indo-European coalition of Cimmerians, Skythians, and Urartu.

705–BC Sennacherib’s reign begins, rules until 681 BC. Biblical. Son of Sargon II. Sennacherib makes capital at Nineveh. . The refusal of the people of Babylon to accept Assyrian rule, culminating in his destruction and subjegation of the city in 689 BC by Assyrian army. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned from Babylonia to the western part of the empire, where Hezekiah of Judah, incited by Egypt and Merodach-Baladan, had renounced Assyrian allegiance. The rebellion involved various small states in the area: Sidon and Ashkelon were taken by force and a string of other cities and states, including Byblos, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom then paid tribute without resistance. Ekron called on Egypt for help but the Egyptians were defeated. Sennacherib then turned on Jerusalem, Hezekiah's capital. He besieged the city and gave its surrounding towns to Assyrian vassal rulers in Ekron, Gaza and Ashdod. However, Sennacherib did not breach the city, and Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler. Sennacherib was assassinated, quite possibly by sons.

681–BC Esarhaddon’s reign begins, rules until 669 BC. Biblical. Son of Sennacherib. Did battle with Urartu, also known as the Kingdom of Van/Armenia. The Sidonian king who had risen up against the Assyrian king, was defeated in 677 BC and beheaded. The town of Sidon was destrored and the population was deported to Assyria. A share of the plunder went to the loyal king of rival Tyre . In 671 BC, Esarhaddon went to war against Pharaoh Taharqa of Egypt, a pharaoh from Nubia. Assyria took the northern part of Egypt. Debilitating illness in his old age that left him incapable of governing so that he abdicated some time in 668 BC in favor of his son Ashurbanipal. He died a year later.

668 BC Ashurbanipal’s reign begins, rules until 627 BC. The son of Esarhaddon. Built Library in Nineve. Ashurbanipal defeated the Elamites. Ashurbanipal sent an army against Egypt in 667 BC that defeated the Nubian king Taharqa, near Memphis, while Ashurbanipal stayed at his capital in Nineveh. At the same time, some Egyptian vassals rebelled and were also defeated. All of the vanquished leaders save one were sent to Nineveh. Only Necho I, the native Egyptian Prince of Sais, convinced the Assyrians of his loyalty and was sent back to become the Assyrian puppet Pharaoh of Egypt. Assyria was by then master of the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from the Caucasus in the north to North Africa and the Arabian peninsula in the south, and from Cyprus and the east Mediterranean in the west, to central Iran in the east. Ashurbanipal enjoyed the subjugation of a myriad of nations and peoples, including Babylon, Chaldea, Media, Persia, Egypt, Libya, Elam, Gutium, Parthia, Cissia, Phrygia, Mannea, Corduene, Aramea, Urartu, Lydia, Cilicia, Commagene, Caria, Cappadocia, Phoenicia, Canaan, the Suteans, Sinai, Israel, Judah, Samarra, Moab, Edom, Ammon, Nabatea, Arabia, the Neo-Hittites, Dilmun, Meluhha, Nubia, Scythia, Cimmeria, Armenia and Cyprus, with few problems during Ashurbanipal's reign. For the time being, the dual monarchy in Mesopotamia went well, with Shamash-shum-ukin accepting his position as the vassal of his brother peaceably.

605 B.C. Battle of Carchemish. Twenty years after Ashurbanipal, Assyria came to an end--for all time. Battle of Carchemish between the armies of Egypt allied with the remnants of the army of the former Assyrian Empire against the armies of Babylonia, allied with the Medes, Persians, and Scythians. Earlier, at the Fall of Harran (609 BC) the Babylonians and Medes defeated an Assyrian-Egyptian alliance, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an independent state. At Carchemish, Pharoah Necho II of Egypt and the Assyrians fought against King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and King Cyaxares of the Medes. Prior, Pharoah Necho II had defeated Judah at the Battle of Megiddo, and Judah's King Josiah was killed. Pharoah Necho and the Assyrians were defeated though at Carchemish, and the Assyrian Empire was no more. This led to the subsequent rise of the Babylonian and Persian Empires.



New Babylonian Empire (625 B.C. to 539 B.C.)



626 B.C. Babylonians rebel against the Assyrians, and are able to set up their own kingdom a year after the death of the powerful Assyrian King Ashurbanipal. Babylonians led by Nabopolassar; he and his son Nebuchadnezzar become the first two kings of the new Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar’s reign lasts about eleven years. He formed an alliance with King Cyaxares of the Medes in order to destroy the Assyrian Empire.

612 B.C. Babylonians, often called Chaldeans, help sack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Seven years later the Babylonians and their allies definitively defeat the Assyrians at the Battle of Carchemish. The capital of the empire moves to the city of Babylon. From the beginning to end, the new Babylonian kingdom lasts only long enough to produce six kings. Chief god of the Babylonians is Marduk.

604 B.C. King Nebuchadnezzar begins a powerful reign of Babylon, a reign that lasts 42 years--until 562 B.C. Lavish architectural structures like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate are built. Nebuchadnezzar was the main general in the defeat of the Assyrians at Carchemish in 605.

562 B.C. Amel-Marduk begins two year reign; the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Named Evil-Merodach in the Old Testament narrative. Assasibated by his brother-in-law Neriglissar, who becomes king for four years—followed by Neriglissar’s son, who has a reign of one year.

556 B.C. Nabonidus becomes king of Babylon. Wikipedia: “The Marduk priesthood hated Nabonidus because of his suppression of Marduk's cult and his elevation of the cult of the moon-god Sin.” He was from Harran, and his mother had been connected with the temple of the moon god there. Nabonidus’s son Prince Belshazzar often ruled in his stead.

539 B.C. Babylon falls to the Persian King Cyrus the Great. Babylonian King Nabonidus is deposed, as is his son Prince Belshazzar. Babylon never emerges as a kingdom again.

141 B.C. The city of Babylon is abandoned. The city becomes a ruins. It is discovered again by explorers and archeologists in the 1800s. The ruins are excavated from the desert.



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Persian Empire



By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE. In ancient times, some of these places were called Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Lycia, Colchis, Media, Parthia, Bactria. The Persians built a Royal Highway across their empire, enabling products from the East (via the Silk Road) to reach the West. The Persians also had a policy of toleration that enabled people from different lands to co-exist and maintain large scale trade routes to remain open peaceably. The Persians practiced Zoroastrianism as a major religion, with the beliefs of monotheism and the battle between good and evil.

Achaemenid Dynasty and the Persian Empire (550–330 BC)

705 BC. The early dynastic rulers of Persia before it became an empire were these four members of the Achaemenid family in succession. 1) Achaemenes. First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom --705 BC; 2) Teispes. Son of Achaemenes-- 640 BC; 3) Cyrus I. Son of Teispes 580 BC; 4) Cambyses I. Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus the Great --550 BC.

560 BC. Cyrus the Great Founder of the empire; King of the "four corners of the world" 560–530 BC Cyrus built his empire by first conquering the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He led an expedition into Central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception". Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, and was alleged to have died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.

530 BC Cambyses II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 530–522 BC Cyrus the Great was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to conquer Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule.

522 BC. Darius the Great. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BC Darius built up Persepolis ant turned it into the capital of the Persian Empire. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra–Nehemiah.

486 BC. Xerxes the Great King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 486–465 BC Xerxes I is one of the Persian kings identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther. Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. Xerxes oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. He is also notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until the losses at Salamis and Plataea. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.

465 BC Artaxerxes I 465–424 BC Portrayed in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah. Artaxerxes is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation. Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis.

405 BC Artaxerxes II 405–358 BC. Artaxerxes became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies during the Peloponnesian war, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II, invaded Asia Minor in 396-395 BC. He forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. Expedition against Egypt failed. From 372 BC many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt. Artaxerxes II finally quashed the Revolt of the Satraps by 362 BC.



358 BC. Artaxerxes III. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt (Regained control over Egypt after 50 years) 358–338 BC. Soon after becoming king, Artaxerxes murdered all of the royal family to secure his place as king. He started two major campaigns against Egypt. The first campaign failed, and was followed up by rebellions throughout the western part of his empire. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes defeated Nectanebo II, the Pharaoh of Egypt, driving him from Egypt, stopping a revolt in Phoenicia on the way. In Artaxerxes' later years, Philip II of Macedon's power was increasing in Greece, where he tried to convince the Greeks to revolt against the Achaemenid Empire. His activities were opposed by Artaxerxes, and with his support, the city of Perinthus resisted a Macedonian siege.

336 BC. Darius III King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt; last ruler of the empire 336–330 BC n 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius. Before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by his cousin Satrap Bessus.



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Ancient Greece



1184 B.C. (?) Troy falls to the Greeks, according to legend. Troy actually did exist just below the Hellespont (Dardanelles) on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor (Turkey); German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann found the ruins of Troy in the 1870s.

1100 B.C. Dorian invasion of the Greek mainland, and the beginning of a Dark Age in Greece--that lasts until the Greeks begin applying the idea of a polis. --Geometric Period (c. 900-700 B.C.) -- Orientalizing Period (c. 700-600 B.C.) --Later, during the Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.)

900 B.C. Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians continue to invade. Dark Age continues. Geometric Period art is a phase of Greek art, characterized largely by geometric motifs in vase painting, that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages, circa 900 BC – 700 BC. Its center was in Athens, and from there the style spread amongst the trading cities of the Aegean.

800s B.C. Greeks develop the idea of the polis regarding what their cities should be like; they apply this idea in their own cities. The Greeks develop colonies in the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). The power of the idea and its application brings Greece out of the Dark Age.

Periods of Greek History:

Archaic Period (800 BC – 480 BC)

Late Archaic Period (560 BC – 480 BC)

Classical Period (480 BC – 323 BC)

Hellenistic Period (323 BC – 146 BC)



850 B.C. Period of Homer

800 B.C. Lycurgus of Sparta--lawgiver of Sparta who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness, and austerity.

776 B.C. Beginning of the first Olympic games

750 B.C. Period of Hesiod

621 B.C. Code of Draco—-Draco, an Athenian lawgiver, issues code of laws, with many crimes punishable by death. First recorded legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by a written code to be enforced only by a court. Draco was the first democratic legislator, inasmuch as he was requested by the Athenian citizens to be a lawgiver for the city.

594 B.C. Solon reforms—Solon an Athenian statesman, becomes Archon, captures Salamis from Megarians—later, when member of the Areopagus is appointed to effect social reforms in order to preserve order in Athens, which include the abolition of the security of debts on a debtor's person, returning exiled Athenian slaves, changing the value of weights and measures to the Corinthian standard, prohibiting the export of grain from Attica and encouraging the planting of olives, established the property classes and the council of 400.

585 B.C. Thales the pre-Socratic philosopher correctly predicts an eclipse. He was one of the Milesians thinkers, along with Anaximander and Anaximenes. Later came the pre-Socratic philosopher named Heraclites with his theories on change. Also, Pythagoras the mathmetician.

561 B.C. Pisistratus regime, to 527 B.C. was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period Pisistratus championing of the lower class of Athens, the is an early example of populism. While in power, Pisistratus did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor, and funded many religious and artistic programs. His legacy lies primarily in his instituting the Panathenaic Festival Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Pisistratus and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias. Pisistratus was the brother-in-law of Cleisthenes; however, Pisistratus was much older.

508 B.C. Cleisthenes was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." Also, he was credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens’ assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics. He reorganized the Boulecouncil, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe. He also introduced the bouletic oath, "To advise according to the laws what was best for the people". The court system was reorganized and had from 201–5001 jurors selected each day, up to 500 from each tribe. It was the role of the Boulecouncil to propose laws to the assembly of voters, who convened in Athens around forty times a year for this purpose. The bills proposed could be rejected, passed or returned for amendments by the assembly. Cleisthenes was the uncle of Pericles' mother and of Alcibiades' maternal grandfather

492 B.C. First Persian War, to 490 B.C. Achaemeaid Dynasty in Persia.

480 B.C. Second Persian War, 479 B.C. Themistocles in Athens King Leonidas in Sparta.

477 B.C. Delian League

457 B.C. Ascendancy of Pericles, to 429 B.C. Pericles was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the Golden Age—specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family. Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens" Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century. Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people. Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.

431 B.C. Peloponnesian War, to 404 B.C.

415 B.C. Athenian expedition to Syracuse in Sicily with Alcibiades, lasts two years.

399 B.C. Trial and execution of Socrates; he's found guilty of corrupting his students and for being impious towards the gods. Plato was a student of Socrates; he forms a school in Athens called the Academy. Aristotle is the student of Plato; he founds a school in Athens called the Lyceum, and later becomes the teacher of Alexander the Great.

359 B.C. Phillip of Macedon begins his reign.

336 B.C. Alexander the Great's reign, until he dies young in 323 B.C. at age thirty-three--reign of 13 years; he conquered much of the Western world--but not Rome, which was a young Republic then, and not Carthage, a Phoenician foundation city with an small empire that was about to be conquered by Rome.

323 B.C. Hellenism period begins, with the spreading of Greek culture throughout the Western world.



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The Hellenistic Period



The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean and Near Eastern history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. At this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its peak in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, experiencing prosperity and progress in the arts, exploration, literature, theatre, architecture, music, mathematics, philosophy, and science. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele and a syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism in Bactria and Northwest India.

301 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire was divided up between four of his generals-- 1) Cassander got Greece; 2) Ptolemy got Egypt and parts of the southern Levant; 3) Lysimachus got the region around Thace and western and northern Anatolia; and 4) Seleucus I Nicator got the remaining territory stretching from southeastern Anatolia and the northern Levant to the Indus River.

200 BC. By this time, Anatolia (Asia Minor, now Turkey) was divided up into smaller kingdoms--Pergamum in western Anatolia; Bithynia and Pontus in the northern part; Galatia in the central part; and Cappadocia and Armenia in the eastern part. Some of the kings of these kingdoms were Pergamum--Attalus; Bithynia--Nicomedes; Pontus--Mithridates; Galatia --Leonnorios; Cappadocia--Ariarathes; and Armenia--Tigranes the Great

200 BC. Also by this time, other kingdoms in the empire became independent--Nabatean Kingdom, Parthia, Judea, Greco-Bactria, and Indo-Greek kingdoms.

Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as Serapis, and the Syrian gods Atargatis and Hadad, as well as a Jewish synagogue, all coexisting on the island of Delos alongside classical Greek deities. A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized Atargatis) and Isis-Demeter. Mystery religions became popular during the Hellenistic period. The apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes

The Hellenistic Period saw the rise of five schools of philosophy: 1) Stoicism of Zeno; 2) Epicurianism; 3) Hedonism of Aristippus the Younger: 4) Skepticism of Pyrrho of Elis; and 5) Cynicism of Diogenes Neoplatonism was a strand of Platonic philosophy that later emerged against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. Plotinus and Porphyry were two philosophers associated with Neoplatonism.

One of the cultural achievements of the Hellenistic period was the Library of Alexandria, which was estimated to have had 700,000 volumes. Hellenistic art had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great.



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The Roman Republic (and the earlier Roman Kingdom)



753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome. Period of the Roman Kingdom. Story of Romulus and Remus. In all, there are seven successive kings of Rome, the first being Romulus. He set up a Senate consisting of 100 heads of the prominent families in Rome. These became the original patricians, the ruling families of Rome.

616 B.C. Etruscan kings of Rome, three in succession, ending in 509 B.C. In this period the Servian Wall around Rome is begun, enclosing the "seven hills of Rome"; this Roman wall is begun by Etruscan king of Rome Servius Tullius. Senate size is increased to 200 members; the new 100 members are called heads of the minor patrician families, while the earlier 100 members are called the heads of the major patrician families.

509 B.C. Founding of the Roman Republic. Roman Lucius Junius Brutus leads revolt overthrowing the last king, Etruscan King Tarquin the Proud. Lucius Junius Brutus becomes one of the first two Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Senate is given primary power in Rome, composed of patricians. SPQR means "The Senate and the People of Rome."

460 B.C. The Comitia or Assembly of the Tribes is established, composed of plebeians.

450 B.C. The laws of the Twelve Tables is enacted.

390 B.C. The Celts under the chieftain Brennus defeat Rome in a battle, and proceed to sack Rome. They were called Cisalpine Gauls.

364 B.C. First Punic War with Carthage. End of the Third Punic War, the last war with Carthage, is 146 B.C. Hannibal of Carthage and Scipio Africanus of Rome. Rome defeats Carthage in all three wars, conquers all Carthage territories in Mediterranean, and annexes Sicily.

272 B.C. Rome conquers and unifies the rest of Italy, except Sicily and some regions in northern Italy. Sicily was conquered in 241 B.C., the city-state of Syracuse was conquered in 212 B.C., and northern Italy was conquered in 191 B.C.--when the Romans made Cisalpine Gaul one of its provinces.

146 B.C Rome conquers Greece.

133 B.C. Time of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, ending in 121. Optimates v.s Populares-- Roman political parties in opposition. The Gracchus brothers were tribunes, and were Populares in favor of land reform and more political power to the plebeians.

78 B.C. Sulla dies of natural causes after retirement from statesmanship. He had been a temporary dictator of Rome, reorganized the government, restored some order to Rome after difficulties in the period of Marius, and stepped down from the dictatorship--only to be elected as one of the two consuls afterwards. Politically, Sulla was an Optimate.

71 B.C. Crassus defeats slave revolt of Spartacus, but about two decades later Crassus is killed in Parthia in a failed attempt to conquer the Parthians.

63 B.C. Roman general Pompey the Great conquers Jerusalem, Palestine becomes a Roman province. Pompey conquers Syria and parts of Asia Minor

60 B.C. First Triumvirate is formed--Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.

58 B.C. Julius Caesar begins to conquer Gaul. Takes seven years to complete, and is ended when he defeats Celtic chieftain Vercingentrix near present-day Dijon, France.

49 B.C. Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon

46 B.C. Julius Caesar becomes dictator of Rome--lasts two years

44 B.C. Assassination of Julius Caesar on the floor of the Roman Senate.

43 B.C. Second Triumvirate begins--Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus

27 B.C. End of the Roman Republic; beginning of the Roman Empire,

10 B.C. Herod the Great rebuilds the temple; he was appointed as King of the Jews by the Romans--with the understanding that Herod would be Rome's vassal as a client kingdom. He's unpopular among the Jews. When he dies he is buried in a mausoleum near Bethlehem. Soon after Herod's death, the Romans appoint a series of governors (procurators) who have the real power in Judea; these governors are Romans who answer to the Roman emperor.



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Jesus Christ is born, some time around 4 B.C. and 1 A.D.

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The Roman Empire



Julio-Claudian Emperors reigns 27 B.C. to 68 A.D.—Emperor Caesar Augustus (reign 27 B.C.-14 A.D.) actual name Octavian-- grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Long reign and establishes stability as the first Roman emperor. Pax Romana. Emperor Tiberius (14-37 A.D.) He doesn’t like to govern and removes to the island Capri, leaving Sejanus to govern Rome—the latter is the prefect or head of the Praetorian Guard. Emperor Caligula (37-41 A.D.) Essentially a madman. He declares himself a god and puts a huge statue of himself in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. The Praetorian Guard eventually assassinates him. Emperor Claudius (41-54 A.D.) He’s declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. During his reign Rome takes control of Britain. Dies of poisoning by Nero’s mother—she later dies of poisoning by Nero. Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.) Another madman. Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. Nero builds himself a huge villa in the ruins with a colossal statue of himself. Nero blames the fire on the Christians and begins the Roman persecution of the Christians. Nero arranges his own death after the Roman Senate declares him an enemy of the state, to be brought to the Forum and beaten to death. Miscellaneous: Wife of Augustus is Livia, and his exiled daughter is Julia. Livia is also the mother of Tiberius; Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus. The sister of Caligula is Drusilla. The wife of Claudius is Messalina.

Flavian Emperors 69 A.D. to 96 A.D.--Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. Considered poor emperors. Emperor Vespasian (69 - 79 AD) Began the building the Roman Colosseum on the land of Nero’s palace. Made an addition to the Imperial Forum. Emperor Titus (79 -81 AD)--the son of Vespasian. Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Arch of Titus—for his victories in Jerusalem. Emperor Domitian (81 - 96 AD)-- brother of Titus. Declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. One of the heavy periods of Christian persecution. Assassinated.

Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian 96 A.D. to 138 A.D. Beginning of the succession of the “Five Good Emperors,” per Gibbon. Emperor Nerva (96- 98 AD). Declared emperor by the Roman Senate. Assures peaceful succession. The Forum of Nerva. Emperor Trajan (98- 117 AD). Conquest of Dacia (now Romania). Annexes the Nabataean Kingdom, Armenia, and Mesopotamia after a successful war with Parthia. Puts down a Jewish revolt. He extends the Roman Empire to its furthest boundary limits. The Forum of Trajan (with its major library), Trajan’s Column, and Trajan’s Market. Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138 AD). A humanist; loves things Greek. After a revolt in Britain, he constructs Hadrian’s Wall. Builds the Pantheon, and outside of Rome—Hadrian’s Villa. Ends the Jewish revolt. Builds the Mausoleum of Hadrian, now the Castel Sant'Angelo. Assures peaceful succession of the next two emperors. The four emperors—Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius—account for a combined reign of 82 years.

Antonine Emperors 138 A.D. to 192 A.D.--Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus. Emperor Antonius Pius (38 – 161 AD). Roman successful invasion of modern Scotland; Antonine Wall built. Temple Antonius and Faustina built in Roman Forum (now a church). Ambassador from India at the Roman court. Antonius Pius sent an ambassador to China. Protected the Christians throughout the empire. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 AD). Like a Stoic philosopher-king; writes the Meditations, in Greek. Wars with Parthians when they depose the Armenian king, and with the Goths when they cross the Danube. Antonine Plague in 165—perhaps smallpox, kills five million in the Roman Empire. Persecuted the Christians. Pax Romana ends in 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius—the empire begins its decline. Emperor Commodus (177 – 192 AD). Natural son of Marcus Aurelius. Considered a very poor emperor. Declared himself to be a son of the supreme Roman god Jupiter, and tried to rename Rome after himself. Commodus was assassinated, leaving an embattled succession problem—“the year of five emperors.”

Severan Emperors 193 A.D. to 235 A.D.--Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus. Emperor Septimus Severus (193 – 211 AD), Successful war in Parthia and Caledonia. Erects his Arch in the Forum. Builds huge palace on the Palatine Hill, overlooking the Circus Maximus. Dies of illness while on campaign in York, England. Emperor Caracalla (198 – 217 AD). Oldest son of Septimus Severus. Modern works portray Caracalla as a psychopathic and evil ruler. Builds the Baths of Caracalla in region south of the Forum. Murdered. Emperor Elagabalus (218 – 222 AD) Boy emperor. Murdered by Praetorian Guard. Emperor Alexander Severus (222 – 235 AD). Threats from Sassanid Empire in Persia and from the tribes of Germania. Murdered by the army.

Emperor Decius (249 – 251 AD). The persecution of Christians by Decius resulted from an edict issued in 250 by the Emperor ordering everyone in the Roman Empire to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods and the well-being of the Emperor. The edict ordered that the sacrifices be performed in the presence of a Roman magistrate, and a signed and witnessed certificate be issued to that effect/

Emperor Aurelian (reign 270-275 A.D) --Aurelian Wall built around Rome; expands upon the old Servan Wall to include the Campus Martius, some territory west of the Tiber River, areas south of the Aventine Hill, and further extensions to the east of the old wall. Vatican Hill is not protected within the Aurelian Wall, nor was it protected by the old Servan Wall.

Emperor Diocletian 284 A.D to 305 A.D Establishes the Tetrarchy in 393. Establishes price controls. War then favorable settlement with Sassanid Persians. Begins the worst Roman persecution of Christians in 302. Baths of Diocletian—located on top of the Viminal Hill, northeast of the Forum; largest of the Imperial Baths; now a Catholic Church, Santa Maria of the Angels and Martyrs. Abdicated and retired to his palace in Dalmatia in 305—modern city of Split in Croatia. Died in 312.

Emperor Maxentius 305 A.D to 312 A.D A rival of Constantine. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision sent by the Christian God, which was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of the Chi-Rho was painted on the soldiers' shields. Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in northern Rome in 312, where Maxentius perished by drowning in the Tiber River.

Emperor Constantine the Great 312 A.D to 337 A.D

313 A.D. Emperor Constantine issues the Edict of Milan ending the persecution of Christians.

325 A.D. Council of Nicaea established by the Emperor Constantine in which the bishops enunciate the creed of Christians. Arianism rejected.

330 A.D. Constantine the Great moved his capital to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople, city of Constantine. This becomes the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Constantine quells civil wars during much of his reign.

332 A.D. Constantine defeats the Goths in the eastern part of the Empire. He then defeated the Sarmatians, an Indo-European people who spoke Scythian (an Iranian language) and who once lived north of Persia.

337 A.D. Constantine the Great dies. His three sons divide the Empire between them. Constantine dies a Nicene Christian.

342 A.D Pagan sacrifice banned in Rome.

361 A.D. Emperor Julian the Apostate tries to reestablish paganism in Rome. He’s a Neoplatonist who dabbles a lot in mystic cults. He is emperor for about two years, and died in battle.

378 A.D. Visigoth barbarians defeat the Roman army of the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (in Thrace, once part of Bulgaria). Valens is slain in the battle. The Goths had crossed the Danube in 376, sparking the war with Rome. The Goths are granted territories in Thrace after virtually winning the war with Rome.

380 A.D. Emperor Theodosius declares Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica. He specified that Christianity of the Council of Nicaea, not Arianism, was the official religion.

400 A.D. Emperor moves the capital from Rome to Ravenna. The fall of Rome is by now looking imminent by a sort of domino effect. It begins in c. 375 A.D with the Huns., who were residing to the area north of the Caspian Sea, pushing westward. The Huns displace the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals who all were living in a large swath of territory from north of the Black Sea to north of Greece. This puts them in conflict with Rome. Each takes their turn in sacking Rome in the 400s and 500s.

406 A.D. Vandals and other Germanic barbarians cross the Rhine, sparking war with Rome. St. Augustine dies in the attack of the Vandals upon his city.

410 A.D Sack of Rome by Alaric and his Visigoth barbarians. End of Roman rule in Britain the same year, as army legions are needed closer to Rome to protect the city. With Britain unprotected, the Angle, Saxon, and Jute barbarians invade and settle in what becomes England in the 440s. Also feeling pressure from the Huns, the Franks move from the northern Rhineland into Roman Gaul in the 450s, and take control of what becomes northern France

452 A.D. Attack by Attila the Hun and his barbarians. He is stopped outside of Rome by Pope Leo the Great and a miraculous vision protecting the city.

455 A.D. Sack of Rome by Genseric and his Vandal barbarians.

476 A.D. Fall of Rome—the official date. Last Roman Emperor of the West abdicates under pressure from the Arian Goth Odoacer. Theodoric and the Ostrogoth barbarians take control of the region. End of the Roman Empire. Rome is sacked by the Ostrogoths under Totila in 546 A.D. The last Roman Emperor was Romulus Augustus; it is a mystery what became of him after 476—some sources say he was exiled and may have lived until 506 A.D.

The Bible as History

The Bible as History



I'm writing this booklet-sized research-essay to make it easier to understand what is said in the Bible about the historical events in the story of Judea. I'm treating the beginning stories up through the Tower of Babel as allegorical and symbolic of the truths they are expressing.

I think the history begins with the story of Abraham in the city-state of Ur in ancient Sumeria. This would be about 2,000 B.C. Ur existed and was just south of the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in ancient Mesopotamia. Archeology shows that there was a huge ziggurat or pagan temple in Ur. Abraham is the first Patriarch. He was called by God to move his family to Canaan in modern Judea. This was the other end of the Fertile Crescent that included Mesopotamia and Judea. It was possible to grow crops in this Fertile Crescent.

Abraham, his son Isaac, and grandson Jacob are the beginning Patriarchs. Jacob had twelve sons, including Joseph. These sons were the beginning points of the twelve tribes of Israel. By the end of the Book of Genesis, the Hebrews had settled in Egypt--to avoid famines. There they were enslaved by the pharaohs.

Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt. Modern estimates are that he lived around 1300 B.C. or 1200 B.C. Moses, Aaron, and Joshua led the Hebrews back into Canaan--the promised land. There were Canaanite kingdoms already there, but with the power of God behind them the Hebrews were able to defeat them, and set up their own Jewish state. The twelve tribes of Israel were each given their own territory in Judea.

The Israelites did not have a king until King Saul, in about 1050 B.C. Once established in Canaan, the Israelites were governed by Mosaic law and leaders called Judges. This lasted for two or three hundred years, and then the Israelites clamored for a king to rule them. This resulted in Saul being anointed king.

King Saul ruled for 42 years. He was followed by King David, who ruled for 40 years. Then King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, ruled for 40 years. These three kings then, ruled for about 120 years. This was the period of the unified Kingdom of Israel. After King Solomon, the kingdom split into two--a Northern Kingdom and a Southern Kingdom.

So, King David was king of the unified kingdom in about 1000 B.C. King Solomon died about 930 B.C. After this the two kingdoms emerged from the unified kingdom. The Northern Kingdom, called the Kingdom of Israel in the Bible, had its capital in the city of Samaria. It existed from 930 B.C. to 722 B.C.--for about 210 years. It had 19 kings in succession. The Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Assyrian Empire in 722, and was never restored.

The Southern Kingdom, called the Kingdom of Judah in the Bible, had its capital in Jerusalem. It existed from 930 B.C. to 586 B.C.--for about 344 years. It had a succession of 20 kings. The Southern Kingdom was conquered by the Babylonian Empire in 586 B.C. Many of the Jews were sent to Babylon; this is known as the Babylonian Captivity. The Jewish state was restored in Jerusalem after Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon in 538 B.C., and put it out of existence. The Persians also put Assyria out of existence.

The first segment of this research essay is below. It is a succession listing of the kings of the Northern Kingdom, the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria). After the succession list are notes with a paragraph or two about what each of the 19 kings of the Northern Kingdom did during his reign. After this, I will do a similar research piece in the 20 kings of the Southern Kingdom.

Regarding the dates of the reigns of the kings of the Northern Kingdom, the Bible gives the length of reign for each of the 19 kings. It does not give the dates as listed here. For the most part, I used the dates as given in the New American Bible. I compared those dates with four other dating systems arrived at by Biblical scholars. The one king where there is a large variance is King Pekah in circa 732 B.C. The Bible says he reigned 20 years, but the Biblical scholars set his reign as much shorter.



Succession of Kings of Israel (Northern Kingdom--Samaria) 930 B.C. to 722 B.C. 19 Kings in Succession



Jeroboam I (reign 930-910 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 13 Reign 22 years; Capital: Shechem & Penuel (aka Sichem & Phanuel) Died: Natural Causes

Nadab (reign 910-909 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 15 Reign 2 years; Capital: Penuel Died: Killed by Baasha

Baasha (reign 909-886 B.C.) aka Baasa 1 Kings Ch. 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 16 Reign 24 years; Capital: Tizrah (aka Thersa) Died: Natural Causes

Elah (reign 885-884 B.C.) aka Ela 1 Kings Ch. 16 Reign 2 years; Capital: Tizrah Died: Zimri killed him

Zimri (reign 884 B.C.) aka Zambri 1 Kings Ch 16 Reign 7 days; Capital: Tizrah Died: Omri beseiged him. In the process Zimri set on fire the royal palace in Tizrah; and died in the fire.

Omri (reign 884-874 B.C.) aka Amri 1 Kings Ch 16 Reign 12 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Ahab (reign: 874-853 B.C.) aka Achab 1 Kings Ch 16; 2 Chronicles Ch 18 Reign 22 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Shot by archer in battle

Ahaziah (reign 853-852 B.C) aka Ochozias 1 Kings Ch 22; 2 Chronicles Ch 20: 35 Reign 2 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Accident

Joram (reign 852-843 B.C) 1 Kings Ch 22; 2 Chronicles Ch 22:5 Reign 12 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Killed by Jehu

Jehu (reign 843-815 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 9; 2 Chronicles Ch 20:34 Reign 28 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Jehoahaz (reign 814-798 B.C.) aka Joachaz 2 Kings Ch 9; 2 Chronicles Ch 25:21 Reign 17 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Jehoash (reign 798-786 B.C.) aka Joas 2 Kings Ch 13 Reign 16 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Jeroboam II (reign 786-746 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 14 Reign 41 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Zachariah (reign 746 B.C.) aka Zacharias 2 Kings Ch 15 Reign 6 months; Capital: Samaria Died: Killed by Shallum

Shallum (reign 745 B.C) aka Sellum 2 Kings Ch 15 Reign 1 month; Capital: Samaria Died: Killed by Menahem

Menahem (reign 745-737 B.C) aka Manahem 2 Kings Ch 15 Reign 10 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Natural Causes

Pekahiah (reign 736-735 B.C.) aka Phaceia 2 Kings Ch 15 Reign 2 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Killed by Pekah

Pekah (reign 734-732 B.C.) aka Phacee 2 Kings Ch 15 Reign 2 years; Capital: Samaria Died: Killed by Hoshea

Hoshea (reign 732-722 B.C.) aka Osee 2 Kings Ch 17 Reign 9 years; Capital: Samaria Died: King Shalmaneser of Assyria conquered the Northern Kingdom and put an end to it in 722 B.C. The Assyrian king had Hoshea killed.



NOTES ON THE KINGS OF ISRAEL (Samaria--the Northern Kingdom)

Jeroboam I (reign 930-910 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 13

1 Kings Ch 12. Jeroboam was in exile in Egypt, and came back to Judea when Solomon died. He challenged Roboam, the son of Solomon, for part of the kingship. Jeroboam and the young men said that Solomon had been too severe to them, and didn't want to be ruled by the son of Solomon. The territory of the ten Hebrew tribes to the north broke with King Roboam, and declared Jeroboam their king. This left the territory of the Hebrew tribes of Juda and Benjamin under control of King Roboam. The northern kingdom under King Jeroboam had its capital eventually in Samaria and is called in the Bible the Kingdom of Israel. The southern kingdom under King Roboam had its capital in Jerusalem and is called in the Bible the Kingdom of Judah.

King Jeroboam broke with Jewish practices. He made two golden calves for different parts of his kingdom (verse 28) and declared these to be the gods of Israel. The people adored the calves. He built temples to pagan gods in high places, with altars. And set up a pagan priesthood. Jeroboam was made a priest of the pagan priesthood (Ch 13: 33). Mention of groves (Ch 14:15).

Story of Jeroboam's withered hand (Ch. 13). Constant war between Jeroboam and Roboam. Prophet Ahias damns Jeroboam (Ch 14). 2 Chronicles Ch 13--Jeroboam is defeated by Roboam's son, Abia--King of Judah. Abia conquered some of the Northern Kingdom's cities, but the latter kingdom did not collapse. After long reign, Jeroboam dies of natural causes.

Nadab (reign 910-909 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 15

Bible says Nabad was wicked and followed the path of his father, Jeroboam. Nabad made war against the Philistines, and Baasha slew Nabad during this campaign. Baasha was then declared King of Israel.

Baasha (reign 909-886 B.C.) aka Baasa 1 Kings Ch. 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 16

Baasha begins to build a city Rama, but then drops it because of pressure from warring kingdoms. He focuses on building capital city Tizrah (aka Thersa). He wiped out Jeroboam's family. Bible says that Baasha was wicked and walked the way of Jeroboam. He was constantly at war with the King of Judah. Baasha has long reign, but a prophet speaks out against him. Baasha dies of natural causes.

Elah (reign 885-884 B.C.) aka Ela 1 Kings Ch. 16

Elah, son of Baasha, becomes King of the Northern Kingdom. Short reign. Zimri is captain of half of Israel's cavalry. When King Elah is drunk in Tizrah, Zimri emerges and slays Elah. Zimri wipes out Baasha's family. He is then declared King of the Northern Kingdom. The Bible says that Elah had been wicked and walked in the way of Jeroboam.

Zimri (reign 884 B.C.) aka Zambri 1 Kings Ch 16

King Zimri had a reign of seven days. The Bible says that Zimri was wicked and walked in the way of Jeroboam. The Israel army was on a campaign against the Philistines. Omri was general of Israel's army. When the army heard of Zimri's rebellion, it declared Omri king instead. The army went and besieged Tizrah, the capital city of the Northern Kingdom. When Zimri saw that it was no use, he burned down the palace, and died in the fire. King Omri now reigned over the Northern Kingdom. A brief contender against Omri died.

Omri (reign 884-874 B.C.) aka Amri 1 Kings Ch 16

The Bible says that Omri was wicked and more evil than all the Northern Kingdom kings before him. He built the city of Samaria and made it the new capital of Israel, the Northern Kingdom. He reigned for 12 years, and died of natural causes.

Ahab (reign: 874-853 B.C.) aka Achab 1 Kings Ch 16; 2 Chronicles Ch 18

Ahab, the son of Omri, became king of the Northern Kingdom. Ahab reigned 22 years, and a great deal is written about him in the Bible. It says that he was wicked beyond all the previous kings of the Northern Kingdom. The prophet Elijah (aka Elias) rose to counter Ahab and his wife Jezabel. She was the daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia. Ahab built a temple and altar to the pagan god Baal, and he served and adored Baal. Ahab planted a pagan grove. Ahab had many prophets of Baal. Ordeal at Mt. Carmel. Elijah calls down fire from heaven to defeat the priests of Baal.

Ahab has war with King Benadad of Syria. Ahab twice defeats Benadad. This Kingdom of Syria had its capital in Damascus, and is not to be confused with the Assyrians, who were further east and had their capital in Ninevah. These Biblical Syrians were ethnic Arameans. The Amorites had settled there earlier.

Ahab built a house of ivory. Ahab begins to follow the gods of the Ammorrhites. Elijah damns King Ahab for following Canaanite gods. In another battle with Syria, King Ahab was struck by an arrow from a bowman. Ahab died from the wounds. Jezabel had fornicated and engaged in sorcery. In 2 Kings Ch 9 Jezabel has a terrible death.

Ahaziah (reign 853-852 B.C) aka Ochozias 1 Kings Ch 22; 2 Chronicles Ch 20: 35

Ahaziah was the son of Ahab. He becomes King Ahaziah upon the death of Ahab. Ahaziah reigned two years. Bible says that he worshiped Baal as did his father and mother, and did the things similar to Jeroboam. Ahaziah was at peace with the king of Judah. However, Moab (a Canaanite kingdom to the East of the Jordan River) rebelled. Ahaziah had an accident in his palace in Samaria, and was bed-ridden. Ahaziah consulted Beelzebub, the god of Accaron. Elijah damns Ahaziah and says that he will die soon in bed. Elijah says that Ahaziah should have turned to Almighty God of Israel. Ahaziah sends a contingent of soldiers to apprehend Elijah, but fire from heaven wipes them out. Ahaziah dies soon after.

Joram (reign 852-843 B.C) 1 Kings Ch 22

Joram, another son of Ahab and brother to Ahaziah, becomes king of the Northern Kingdom. He reigns 12 years. The Bible says that Joram was wicked, but not as bad as his father and mother. Joram had the statues of Baal removed. However he continued the practices of Jeroboam. At this time Elijah was taken into heaven in a fiery chariot. Eliseus becomes the principle prophet of Almighty God. Moab stops making tribute payments to the Northern Kingdom. Joram goes to war against Moab. Joram defeats Moab with the help of the King of Judah and the King of Edom--a Canaanite kingdom south of the Kingdom of Judah. Reference to Naaman the Syrian and the Temple of Remmon. The King of Syria attacks the Northern Kingdom. Syrians eventually flee. But battle between the two kingdoms continues. At this time Joram's mother Jezabel dies.

Jehu has a power base in the Northern Kingdom. Jehu was very much against the sorceries of Jezabel. Joram and Jehu meet in chariots, and Jehu with his bow kills Joram by arrow in the heart. Jehu then became King of Israel, the Northern Kingdom.

Jehu (reign 843-815 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 9 King Jehu proceeded to wipe out all the family of Ahab. In Samaria, Ahab had seventy sons. They were all killed and beheaded. Their heads were put in two piles at the city gate. Jehu abolished the worship of Baal. The worshipers of Baal filled the temple of Baal. Jehu has them all killed. His men destroyed the statue of Baal and destroyed the temple of Baal. Nevertheless Jehu did not dismantle the pagan system that Jeroboam had set up, and he kept the two statues of calves--one in Bethel and one in Dan. Jehu reigned 28 years, and died of natural causes.

Jehoahaz (reign 814-798 B.C.) aka Joachaz 2 Kings Ch 9; 2 Chronicles Ch 25:21

Jehoahez, the son of Jehu, became king of the Northern Kingdom upon Jehu's death. He reigned for seventeen years. Bible says that he was wicked in that he continued the pagan practices of Jeroboam. King Hazael of Syria and his son Benadad continued to make war with the Northern Kingdom. King Jehoahez died of natural causes, after which his son Jehoash became king.

Jehoash (reign 798-786 B.C.) aka Joas 2 Kings Ch 13

King Jehoash followed the same pagan activities that King Jeraboam set up. So up to this time every king of the Northern Kingdom of Israel engaged in the same pagan practices as King Jeroboam, the first king, did. Jehoash reigned 16 years. He made war with King Amasias of Judah. He also has war with King Hazael of Syria, and took cities away from Syria. During the reign of Jehoash the prophet Eliseus dies. Jehoash attacks Jerusalem and is able to steal gold from the city. He dies of natural causes. When King Jehoash dies, his son Jeroboam II becomes king.

Jeroboam II (reign 786-746 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 14

King Jeroboam II also followed the pagan practices of King Jeroboam I. Jeroboam II had a long reign--41 years. The trouble is that after the end of the King Jeroboam II kingship, the Northern Kingdom had only a little more than twenty more years of existence. It came to an end when the Assyrians conquered it in 722 B.C. Jonas the prophet lived during the period of Jeroboam II; Jonas was sent as a prophet to Ninevah, the capital of the Assyrians. Jeroboam II restored some of its borders to a previous demarcation. Jeroboam II died of natural causes. When he died, his son Zachariah became king of the Northern Kingdom. Thus, there were five successive kings of the Northern Kingdom of King Jehu's house.

Zachariah (reign 746 B.C.) aka Zacharias 2 Kings Ch 15

King Zachariah followed the pagan practices of King Jeroboam I. Zacharia reigned only six months. Shallum killed Zachariah in public, and became king.

Shallum (reign 745 B.C) aka Sellum 2 Kings Ch 15

King Shallum's reign was only one month. He was killed by Menahem, who then became king of the Northern Kingdom. Shallum was only mentioned in two verses in the Book of Kings.

Menahem (reign 745-737 B.C) aka Manahem 2 Kings Ch 15

King Menahem reigned for ten years. He followed the pagan practices originally set up by King Jeroboam I. He destroyed a city named Thapsa. At this time, the King of Assyria entered Israel. History knows the Assyrians as being a warlike people. The Bible names the Assyrian king as King Phul. King Menahem decides that the Northern Kingdom will become a tributary of Assyria. A large sum of money is given to the Assyrian king, and he then decides to withdraw from Israel. King Menahem levies a heavy tax on the rich of Israel to cover for the tribute payments to Assyria. Menahem died of natural causes. When he died, his son Pekahiah became king of the Northern Kingdom.

Pekahiah (reign 736-735 B.C.) aka Phaceia 2 Kings Ch 15

Pekahiah reigned for two years. He followed the paganism that was originally set up by Kng Jeroboam I. Not much is said about him in the Bible. A captain of the army, Pekah, and fifty soldiers slew Pekahiah. Pekah was then declared king.

Pekah (reign 734-732 B.C.) aka Phacee 2 Kings Ch 15

It says that King Pekah reigned for twenty years in the Bible. He followed the same pagan practices as Jeroboam I. King Pekah made war against the Southern Kingdom and attacked Jerusalem. During the reign of Pekah, King Tiglath Pileser III of Assyria (spelled Theglathphalasar in the Bible) came into Israel and captured some cities. Hoshea plotted against Pekah and killed him. Hoshea then became king, the last king of the Northern Kingdom.

Hoshea (reign 732-722 B.C.) aka Osee 2 Kings Ch 17 Reign 9 years; Capital: Samaria

King Hoshea reigned for nine years. In the Bible it says that Hoshea "did evil before the Lord, but not as the kings of Israel before him." King Hoshea paid tribute to the king of Assyria, as the three kings of the Northern Kingdom did before him. It says in the Bible that King Hoshea became the servant of the king of Assyria. By this time, the Assyrian King Tiglath Pileser III had died and his son King Shalmaneser V was on the throne of Assyria (spelled Salmanasar in the Bible).

Hoshea rebelled against Assyria. King Shalmaneser of Assyria then brought a force of warriors into the Northern Kingdom and besieged Samaria for three years. Assyria conquered Samaria and the Northern Kingdom in 722 B.C.. They killed Hoshea. They put many people of the Northern Kingdom into captivity and placed them in the cities of Hala and Habor near the River Gozan, in the land of the Medes (precursors of the Persians--east of the Tigris River). These captives from the Northern Kingdom became known in Biblical history as the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. The Northern Kingdom was never restored.

Archeological evidence from Assyria says that the Assyrians carried away 27,280 men of Israel as captives to the region of Assyria and eastward. This is from an inscription of Assyrian King Sargon II, the successor of Assyrian King Shalmaneser V. Biblical scholars report that about one-fifth of the people of the Northern Kingdom of Israel were deported by the Assyrians.

The Bible speaks in the larger part of Chapter 17 of 2 Kings of the reasons why God allowed the Northern Kingdom of Israel to be put out of existence by the Assyrians. We can see by this short narrative that all 19 kings of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in succession practiced paganism and setup a system where the people could do the same. It says that the Israelites walked in the path of many nations that God had destroyed in the sight of the children of Israel and their kings. They had behaved in like manner of these people of Canaan.

The children of Israel built high places in every one of their cities. These high places and groves were places of worship of their pagan gods, and the Bible says they did wicked things there. They made statues of the gods and built groves on every high hill. They set up altars there, and offered up incense to their gods. They worshiped these gods, just the way God through the covenant of Moses had told them not to do. God sent prophets to them to tell them to change their ways back to God and his laws and away from the practices of the worshipers of Canaanite pagan gods. Examples of these are the prophets Elijah and Eliseus, and other minor prophets. The children of Israel did not listen to the prophets.

The Bible goes on to mention the two molten statue calves that the children of Israel worshiped. Then reference is made to the fact that they had turned to the Canaanite god Baal. They had practiced soothsaying and divinations. They even consecrated their sons and daughters to the gods through fire. These things all angered God, according to the Bible.

The kings of Assyria then planted people from Babylon, as well as people from Avah, Emath, Sepharvaim, in the lands of Samaria. This strengthened the pagan nature of the citizens of this area. Seven hundred years later, in the time of Jesus, the people of Jerusalem had disregarded of the people of Samaria because of their worship of pagan gods.

The Bible lists some of these gods:

Babylon god--Sochothbenoth Emath god--Asima Sepharvaim gods--Anamelech and Adramelech Cuthite god--Nergel Hevite gods--Nebahaz and Tharthac

The Bible goes on to say that the people of Sepharvaim burned their children in fire as sacrifice to their gods.





Succession of Kings of Judah (Southern Kingdom--Jerusalem) 930 B.C. to 586 B.C. 20 Kings in Succession



Rehaboam (reign 930-913 B.C.) aka Roboam 1 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 11 Reign 17 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Abijah (reign 913-911 B.C.) aka Abiam, Abia 1 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 13 Reign 3 years; Capital:Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Asa (reign 911-870 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 14 Reign 41 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Severe foot disease

Jehosaphat (reign 870-849 B.C.) aka Josaphat 1 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 17 Reign 25 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Jehoram (reign 849-843 B.C.) aka Joram 2 Kings Ch 8; 2 Chronicles Ch 21 Reign 8 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Severe stomach disease

Ahaziah (reign 843 B.C.) aka Ochozias 2 Kings Ch 8; 2 Chronicles Ch 22 Reign 1 year; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Killed by Jehu, the King of Israel (Samaria)

Athalia (Queen) (reign 843-838 B.C.) aka Athaliah 2 Kings Ch 11; 2 Chronicles Ch 23 Reign 6 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Killed by troops assigned to protect Jehoash

Jehoash (reign 838-800 B.C.) aka Joash, Joas 2 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 24 Reign 40 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Killed by two of his officials, sons of an Ammonite and a Moabite.

Amaziah (reign 800-785 B.C.) aka Amasias 2 Kings Ch 14; 2 Chronicles Ch 25 Reign 29 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Killed in a conspiracy of his officials

Uzziah (reign 785-742 B.C.) aka Azariah, Azarias, Ozias 2 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 26 Reign 52 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Leprosy

Jotham (reign 742-735 B.C.) aka Joatham 2 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 27 Reign 16 years: Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Ahaz (reign 735-716 B.C.) aka Achaz 2 Kings Ch 16; 2 Chronicles Ch 28 Reign 16 years: Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Hezekiah (reign 717-687 B.C.) aka Ezechias 2 Kings Ch 18; 2 Chronicles Ch 29 Reign 29 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Manasseh (reign 687-642 B.C.) aka Manasses 2 Kings Ch 21; 2 Chronicles Ch 33 Reign 55 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Amon (reign 642-640 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 21; 2 Chronicles Ch 33 Reign 2 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Killed by his officials

Josiah (reign 640-609 B.C.) aka Josias 2 Kings Ch 22; 2 Chronicles Ch 34 Reign 31 years: Capital: Jerusalem Died: Shot with an arrow during battle with Egypt

Jehoaziah (reign 609 B.C.) aka Joachaz 2 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 36 Reign 3 months; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Captured by the Egyptian and died in Egypt

Jehoiakim (reign 609-598 B.C.) aka Joachin 2 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 36 Reign 11 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

Jehoiachin (reign 597 B.C.) aka Jeconiah, Joachin 2 Kings Ch 24; 2 Chronicles Ch 36 Reign 3 months; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Captured by Babylonians and died in Babylon

Zedekiah (reign 597-586 B.C.) aka Sedecias 2 Kings Ch 25; 2 Chronicles Ch 36 Reign 11 years; Capital: Jerusalem Died: Captured by Babylonians and died in exile; the Southern Kingdom is conquered by Babylon in 586, and many are exiled to Babylon.



NOTES ON THE KINGS OF JUDAH (Jerusalem--the Southern Kingdom)

Rehaboam (reign 930-913 B.C.) aka Roboam 1 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 11

After King Solomon died his son Rehaboam reigned in a divided kingdom that included the territories of Judah and Benjamin. It was the Southern Kingdom, or in the Bible it is called the Kingdom of Judah. Its capital was Jerusalem.

Rehaboam's mother was an Ammonite. It says in the Bible that Rehaboam was 41 years old when he began his reign, and that he reigned for 17 years. King Rehaboam's reign in Jerusalem coincided with the reign of King Jeroboam I of the Northern Kingdom.

Rehaboam allowed the people in Judah to have pagan rites, and they built pagan altars, groves, and high places. There were also effeminates. The Bible says that these things offended the Lord more that the offenses that their ancestor had done.

In circa 925 B.C., the Pharaoh Sesac of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. The pharaoh took away many of the treasures of Jerusalem. With the Egyptians came Libyans, Ethiaopians, and says the Bible, Troglodytes. This force defeated the cities of Judah. There was also constant war between the Southern Kingdom and the Northern Kingdom.

Rehaboam built walled cities in Judah. One of those cities was Bethlehem. After he enclosed the cities with walls, he appointed governors over them and set up storehouses with provisions, such as oil and wine. In each city he also built an armory with swords and shields.

The priests and Levites who had been in the Northern Kingdom came south into the Southern Kingdom, where they were welcomed by King Rehaboam. They had been persecuted by King Jeroboam of the Northern Kingdom.

King Rehaboam had 18 wives and 60 concubines. He had 20 sons and 60 daughters.

When King Rehaboam died of natural causes in circa 913 B.C., his son Abijah became king of the Southern Kingdom.

Abijah (reign 913-911 B.C.) aka Abiam, Abia 1 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 13

King Abijah of Judah reigned three years. His reign coincided with King Jeroboam I of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. There was war between Abijah and Jeroboam.

It says in the Bible that King Abijah committed the same sins as his father, King Reheboam.

Abijah had 14 wives, had 22 sons and 16 daughters.

When King Abijah died in circa 911 B.C., his son Asa became king of the Southern Kingdom in Jerusalem.

Asa (reign 911-870 B.C.) 1 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 14

King Asa reigned 41 years in Jerusalem. His reign coincided with this succession of kings of the Northern Kingdom: Nabad, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, and Omri.

The Bible says that King Asa did what was right in the eyes of the Lord. He took away the effeminate and removed the idols his fathers had set up in circa 894 B.C. His mother's name was Maacha. She was the princess of sacrifice to the god Priapus. She also consecrated a grove to Priapus. Asa destroyed her den and smashed to statue of Priapus. He did allow the high places to remain though. He took down temples of foreign gods.

King Asa made a league with King Benadad of Syria in Damascus against King Baasha of the Northern Kingdom. Prior to this Syria had a league with the Northern Kingdom. To accomplish this shift in alliance, King Asa sent the king of Syria a treasure of gold and silver. The joint armies of Judah and Syria defeated a number of the cities of the Kingdom of Israel in the North. Chronicles says that Asa had an army of 500,000 men.

King Zara of Ethiopia came and attacked the Southern Kingdom with a huge army. King Asa took his army and met the Ethiopian army at a place called Sephata near Maresa. It says that the army of the Southern Kingdom defeated the Ethiopians with the help of God.

In his older years, King Asa had a disease of the feet that was very painful. He died of natural causes in circa 870 B.C. Asa's son Jehoshaphat then became king of Judah, the Southern Kingdom. A relevant point is the in the Southern Kingdom of Judah, the Davidic line was intact. Royal succession went from father to son: from David to Solomon, to Rehoboam, to Abijah, to Asa, to Jehoshaphat. This was in contrast to the Northern Kingdom of Israel, where the family line of succession was broken four times by 870 B.C.

Jehoshaphat (reign 870-849 B.C.) aka Josaphat 1 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 17

King Jehoshaphat came to the throne of the Southern Kingdom in circa 870 B.C. He ruled in Jerusalem for 25 years, and began his reign when he was age 35. His reign coincides with the reigns of King Ahab, King Ahaziah, King Joram in the Northern Kingdom. This was the time of the prophet Elijah in the north.

Scripture says that Jehoshaphat was right in the eyes of God. Still, he did not remove the high places, and people continued to sacrifice there and burn incense there. Nevertheless, Jehoshaphat sent teachers all throughout Judah so the people could learn about Mosaic law and about Almighty God.

The Southern Kingdom grew prosperous under Jehoshaphat. The Philistines and the Arabians paid tribute to him. At some point a king was not appointed in Edom. Scripture says that King Jehoshaphat was rich and glorious.

At this time the Syrians under King Benedad were attacking the Northern Kingdom. At a certain point there is a Battle of Ramoth Galaad, and King Jehosaphat of Judah has conference with King Ahab of Israel. This was in circa 853 B.C. The Syrians believe that the kingdoms of Judah and Israel have an alliance and retreat. Still a Syrian archer kills King Ahab that day.

King Jehoshaphat built a navy to go to Ophir to obtain gold. The plan did not work though. He rejected an idea of King Ahaziah of the Northern Kingdom to join forces in the venture.

The Ammonites, Moabites, and Syrians formed an alliance to attack the Southern Kingdom. Jehoshaphat and the people of Judah begged for help from God, and the enemies were turned back.

Some time around 850 B.C., the king of Moab rebelled against Israel and stopped making tribute payments. King Joram of Israel made a league with King Jehoshaphat of Judah, and with Edom against Moab. The three armies converged on Moab and defeated Moab. The king of Moab sacrificed his eldest son to their god.

When Jehoshaphat died of natural causes in circa 849 B.C., his son Jehoram became King of Judah--the Southern Kingdom.

Jehoram (reign 849-843 B.C.) aka Joram 2 Kings Ch 8; 2 Chronicles Ch 21

King Jehoram was 32 years old when he assumed the kingship of Judah, and he reigned for eight years. His reign coincided with the successive reigns of Ahaziah and Joram of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Jehoram slew his brothers when he took the throne, to assure they would not compete with him for the crown.

The daughter of King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom was the wife of King Jehoram in Judah. King Jehoram did the same things that King Ahab of Israel had done. He was thus out of favor with God. He built high places and made citizens of Jerusalem fornicate.

The people of Edom established a king for themselves. This was a rebellion against the Southern Kingdom. The army of King Jehoram went to Edom and defeated it.

The Arabians and Philistines made waste of some of the border areas of the Kingdom of Judah.

God sent Jehoram a very bad stomach ailment as punishment for his transgressions. God also sent a plague of illness to the people of Judah.

When King Jehoram died of the stomach ailment, his son Ahaziah became king of the Southern Kingdom in Jerusalem. So the Davidic line has held for six kings in Jerusalem after King Solomon.

Ahaziah (reign 843 B.C.) aka Ochozias 2 Kings Ch 8; 2 Chronicles Ch 22

King Ahaziah was 22 years old when he began his reign in Jerusalem. He ruled for one year. His reign coincided with King Jehu in the Northern Kingdom.

The mother of King Ahaziah was Athalia, the daughter of either King Ahab or King Omri of the Northern Kingdom (wording of scripture is confusing on the specifics).

Like his father, King Ahaziah of Judah worshiped gods the way King Ahab of Israel in Samaria did.

King Ahaziah of Judah joined King Joram of Israel to fight King Hazael of Syria. During this time Jehu revolted and had himself declared king of the Northern Kingdom. King Jehu proceeded to slay Joram of Israel and King Ahaziah of Judah.

Upon the death of King Ahaziah of Judah, his mother Athalia became queen and ruler in Jerusalem.

Athalia (Queen) (reign 843-838 B.C.) aka Ahaliah 2 Kings Ch 11; 2 Chronicles Ch 23

Queen Athalia ruled the Southern Kingdom of Judah for six years. Scripture says that she usurped the throne and ruled in tyranny. She killed the royal family, although one escaped and lived in the temple of God--the male Jehoash. Athalia took the throne sometime around 843 B.C. Her reign coincided with King Jehu of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Athalia was a close blood relative of King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Like King Ahaziah before her, she allowed the pagan practices of King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom of Israel to be established in the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Hence, a temple of Baal was in Judah.

In the Northern Kingdom there was a strong reaction against the worship of Baal; the leadership of this reaction was under their King Jehu. This same reaction occurred in the Southern Kingdom of Judah during this period. The people of Judah went into the temple of Baal, smashed his image, and destroyed the altars there. And they killed the priest of Baal in the pagan temple.

Some time around 838 B.C., the army that was protecting Jehoash in the temple of God declared him king, even though he was still a boy. They then proceeded to kill Queen Athalia.

Jehoash (reign 838-800 B.C.) aka Joash, Joas 2 Kings Ch 12; 2 Chronicles Ch 24

King Jehoash was seven years old when he took the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. He ruled in Jerusalem for 40 years. He was the son of King Ahaziah of Judah, so the Davidic line was now restored. The reign of King Jehoash began around 838 B.C. and coincided with the successive reigns of King Jehu and King Jehoahaz of the Northern Kingdom in Samaria.

Scripture says that King Jehoash did right in the eyes of God, except he did not take down the high places. People of Judah continued to make pagan sacrifices and burn incense in those high places.

Jehoash had two wives, and he had sons and daughters.

King Jehoash made a large-scale repair of the temple of God. Athalia had taken things from the temple of God, and used them to adorn the temple of Baal. The walls of the temple of God were repaired to their former state, but there were still other repairs that needed to be done.

King Hazael of Syria was pressing his army against the Southern Kingdom, and he intended to attack Jerusalem. King Jehoash gave King Hazael silver from the treasury of the temple of God. Hence, King Hazael pulled his army back.

The palace officials conspired and killed King Jehoash. This was some time around 800 B.C. After this, his son Amaziah became king of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. The two killers of King Jehoash had mothers who were Ammonite and Moabite.

Amaziah (reign 800-785 B.C.) aka Amasias 2 Kings Ch 14; 2 Chronicles Ch 25

King Amaziah was age 25 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned 29 years in Jerusalem. His reign coincided with successive reigns of King Jehoahaz and King Jehoash of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

According to Scripture, Amazhiah did right in the eyes of God. Except that he did not take down the high places where pagan activities happened in Judah.

Amaziah had a war with Edom. And he beat the Edomites badly. After this however, he adored the gods of the children of Sier, and burned incense to them. Scripture suggest that these were the gods of Edom. This angered Almighty God.

Amaziah then had a war with the Northern Kingdom of Israel. The army of the Northern Kingdom prevailed and broke down a wall of Jerusalem. Then took many riches with them back to Samaria. This was sometime around 790 B.C.

There then a conspiracy against King Amaziah, and his officials killed him. The son of Amaziah then became king--his name was Uzziah.

Uzziah (reign 785-742 B.C.) aka Azariah, Azarias, Ozias 2 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 26

King Uzziah was age 16 when he took the throne of the Southern Kingdom in Judah, and he reigned 52 years in Jerusalem. Uzziah's reign coincided with the four successive reigns of King Jeroboam II, King Zachariah, King Shallum, and King Menahem of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in Samaria.

Uzziah did right in the eyes of God, but he would not destroy the high places of the Canaan gods. This angered God, according to Scripture, and God sent leprosy to King Uzziah, which remained with him the rest of his life.

King Uzziah had war with the Philistines and defeated them. He also defeated Arabians and Moab in warfare.

He built towers to fortify Jerusalem, and he built such towers elsewhere in Judah. He built war engines in Jerusalem, including catapults.

King Uzziah lived in a house apart from the palace because of the leprosy, and his son Jotham acted as regent. When Uzziah died Jotham became king of the Southern Kingdom. This was around 742 B.C.

Jotham (reign 742-735 B.C.) aka Joatham 2 Kings Ch 15; 2 Chronicles Ch 27 Reign 16 years: Capital: Jerusalem Died: Natural Causes

King Jotham was age 25 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned 16 years in Jerusalem. His reign coincided about the time of the successive reigns of King Menahem and King Pekahiah of the Northern Kingdom.

Jotham did what was right in the eyes of God, except he would not tear down the high places where the Canaanite gods were worshiped. Jotham would not enter the temple of our Lord. He did engage in a building program to improve the temple of God.

There was a war with Ammon during the reign on Jotham, and Judah overcame the Ammonites. The kingdom of Ammon then paid tribute to the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

It was about this time that King Phul of Assyria came into the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and was very threatening. Phul was the common name of Tiglath Pileser III. Tribute was paid to the Assyrians to ward then off for the time being.

When King Jotham died of natural causes, his son Ahaz became king of the Southern Kingdom. This was some time around 735 B.C.

Ahaz (reign 735-716 B.C.) aka Achaz 2 Kings Ch 16; 2 Chronicles Ch 28

King Ahaz was 20 years old when he assumed the reign of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned in Jerusalem for 16 years. His reign coincides about with the successive reigns of King Pekah and King Hoshea of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Scripture says that King Ahaz had a wicked reign. He followed the pattern of worship similar to the kings in the Northern Kingdom. He went to the high places and offered incense and sacrifice to the Canaanite gods. He caste statues of Baalim, and he offered his sons as sacrifice to the god.

King Rasin of Syria attacked Judah and took one of its cities. The Edomites then took control of that area. The Northern Kingdom of Israel then joined forces with Syria to attack Jerusalem. King Ahaz bowed and gave tribute to King Tiglath Pileser III of Assyrian, and asked for help.

The Assyrians then conquered Syria, and sent its inhabitants to Cyrene. Then they killed King Rasin of Syria. After this the Assyrians conquered the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C., and put it out of existence.

The Philistines also made war with Judah, and took some of its cities.

King Ahaz went to Damascus, the capital of Syria, for a peace meeting with Tiglath Pileser III. He saw a pagan altar there and he had his priest make an identical altar for the Southern Kingdom of Judah. He then diminished the value the temple of our Lord. Ahaz made pagan altars on all four corners of Jerusalem, and then sacrificed people there to the gods of Syria, that they might favor him.

When King Ahaz died of natural causes some time around 716 B.C., his son Hezekiah became king of the Southern Kingdom--soon the only independent Jewish state.

Hezekiah (reign 717-687 B.C.) aka Ezechias 2 Kings Ch 18; 2 Chronicles Ch 29

King Hezekiah was age 25 when he assumed the reign of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he ruled 29 years in Jerusalem. Scripture says that King Hoshea ruled the Northern Kingdom of Israel in Samaria at the beginning of King Hezekiah's reign in Jerusalem. This again points to the dating problem, and inconsistencies appear in most date-reckoning systems of this period.

Scripture says that King Hezekiah did right in the eyes of the Lord. He destroyed the pagan high places, broke the statues into pieces, took down the pagan altars, and cut down the pagan groves. Idolatry was abolished. He broke the brazen serpent of Moses, because the people made an idol of it--and called it the name of Nohestan. These things occurred some time around 700 B.C.

Scripture says that he stood out among the kings of Judah, there was none like him in the Southern Kingdom before or after. He followed the ten commandments and the law that Moses brought from God.

The temple of the Lord was repaired under Hezekiah, and scripture says that he purified the temple. He invited the people of the Northern Kingdom to Jerusalem to worship the true God, and some did.

Hezekiah was able to defeat the Philistines all the way to the city of Gaza.

There was prosperity in the Southern Kingdom under King Hezekiah. He built storehouses of food. And improved the water supply.

It was during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah that the Assyrians conquered the Northern Kingdom and sent its people into exile. Hezekiah would not make an alliance with King Shalmaneser V of Assyria in this matter.

Later, King Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Hezekiah sent tribute money to him. Still Assyria pressed, and besieged Jerusalem in circa 701 B.C. A messenger of Sennacherib was sent into Jerusalem to stir up the people. Sennacherib offered to send the people of Judah to a new land in exile, which had some of the characteristics of a promised land. The messenger said that Almighty God could do nothing for the Jews in this situation. He said that the gods of nations did not deliver their peoples from Assyrian conquest--that the people of Emath, Arphad, Sepharvaim, Ana, and Ava had all been conquered by the Assyrians.

At this time, the prophet Isaiah emerged and assured King Hezekiah that if he walked the right path, God would protect the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Hezekiah then prayed to God and did right. God sent an angel by night to kill many of the Assyrian soldiers. King Sennacherib retreated and went back to Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. There Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons while he was worshiping the Assyrian god Nesroch. These two sons then fled to the land of the Armenians--their names were Adramelech and Sarasar. Another of his sons, Asarhaddon, then became king of Assyria.

Hezekiah grew very ill as the years pass. Again the prophet Isaiah intervened, and God gave Hezekiah some very specific instructions on purification. When the king did these, his lie was extended 15 years. There was also a miracle of the sun (Chapter 20, verse 11).

Berodach Baladon, the king of Babylon, visited King Hezekiah. Hezekiah showed him the treasures of Jerusalem. When the prophet Isaiah heard of this, he was angered and told King Hezekiah that someday there would be a conquest by Babylon.

When King Hezekiah died of natural causes, his son Manasseh became king of the Southern Kingdom. This was some time around 687 B.C.

Manasseh (reign 687-642 B.C.) aka Manasses 2 Kings Ch 21; 2 Chronicles Ch 33

King Manasseh was age12 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned in Jerusalem for 55 years. The Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by his reign, and no longer existed.

Scripture says that King Manasseh was wicked. He reestablished idolatry. He set up an altar for Baal. And Manasseh restored the pagan high places and groves. Scripture says that "he adored all the host of heaven, and served them." This refers to the Canaanite gods. He put up an idol statute and pagan altars in the house of the Lord, the temple. Scripture says that he was more wicked than the Amorrhites. Manasseh shed innocent blood in Jerusalem. He followed magicians and enchanters, and practiced divinations.

The Assyrians attacked Judah, captured King Manasseh, and took him in chains to Babylon. Manasseh prayed and did penance. Scripture says that God then secured Manasseh's release, and he was restored to his throne.

King Manasseh then tore down all the remnants of idolatry.

Manasseh died of natural causes, some time around 642 B.C. His son Amon then became king.

Amon (reign 642-640 B.C.) 2 Kings Ch 21; 2 Chronicles Ch 33

King Amon was age 22 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned in Jerusalem for two years.

Scripture says that Amon was wicked and did all the things that his father King Manasseh did regarding adoring idols. And he did not repent as his father did.

Finally his officials killed King Amon in his own house. His son Josiah then became king.

Josiah (reign 640-609 B.C.) aka Josias 2 Kings Ch 22; 2 Chronicles Ch 34 Reign 31 years: Capital: Jerusalem Died: Shot with an arrow during battle with Egypt

King Josiah was eight years old when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned in Jerusalem for 31 years.

Scripture says that Josiah did what was right in the eyes of the Lord.

Josiah did a lot of work to repair the temple of the Lord.

The Book of the Law was found in the temple. At some time around 620 B.C. prophecies came that Judah would receive the wrath of God. King Josiah read the Book of the Law to the people, and they promised to observe it. He destroyed the vessels of Baal and the groves. He killed the soothsayers who led ceremonies to Baal in the high places, and abolished lighting incense to the sun and moon, and to the twelve signs, and to the host of heaven. He took down the pavilions of the effeminate.

King Josiah destroyed the altars to the Canaanite gods. He forbid the sacrificing of one's son or daughter to the god Moloch. Other deities were forbidden and their statues broken, such as:

--Astaroth, the goddess of Sidon --Chamos, god of Moab --Melchom, god of Ammon

Josiah also destroyed pagan temples that had been in the former Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Reference to the Ark in Chronicles. Also the Lamentations of Jeremiah.

Things were changing in the world order of Judea and Mesopotamia. In 612 B.C., the Assyrian capital of Nineveh was destroyed by the Medes (precursors of the Persians to the East) and the Chaldeans (from the area around Babylon). The Assyrian Empire was falling apart. Scripture reports that the Egyptians carried conquest attempts in Judah and all the way to the Euphrates River, where the kingdom of Syria had been before being conquered by the Assyrians. The Battle of Charcamis occurred there. At the same time, the Babylonians were regaining power in the Euphrates River to the southeast. King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon rose up; his reign was from 606-562 B.C.

Some time around 609 B.C., Pharaoh Nechao of Egypt did battle against the Assyrians. King Josiah was killed by an arrow by the Egyptians at Mageddo. His son Jehoaziah was then made king in Jerusalem.

Jehoaziah (reign 609 B.C.) aka Joachaz 2 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 36

King Jehoaziah was age 23 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned three months in Jerusalem.

Scripture says that Jehoaziah did evil before the Lord, as his fathers had. Pharaoh Nechoa took Jehoaziah to Egypt, and he died there. The Pharaoh then took one of the other sons of King Josiah, made him king of Judah, and changed his name to Jehoiakim.

Jehoiakim (reign 609-598 B.C.) aka Joachim 2 Kings Ch 23; 2 Chronicles Ch 36

King Jehoiakim was age 25 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned eleven years in Jerusalem.

Scripture says that Jehoiakim did evil in the eyes of the Lord, in a manner as did his forefathers.

Pharaoh Nechoa exacted tribute and taxes on Jerusalem and the rest of Judah. King Jehoiakim allowed this, and much silver and gold went to Egypt from the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon then rose up and conquered much of the nearby area. And much of what Egypt had conquered in Judea, Babylon now conquered. The Pharoahs of Egypt then did not come into that region, for fear of the power of Babylon.

King Jehoiakim of Judah became a servant and tribute kingdom to Nebuchadnezzar for three years. Then he rebelled against Babylon. For a period, he was put into chains and brought to Babylon (Chronicles).

Roving bands of pillagers from Chaldea, Ammon, and Moab attacked the cities of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Prophets in Jerusalem said that Judah would be severely punished for the sins of Manasseh and other Judah kings like him, and for all the innocent blood that was shed in Jerusalem.

In about the year 598 B.C., King Jehoiakim died of natural causes. His son Jehoiachin then became king in Jerusalem.

Jehoiachin (reign 597 B.C.) aka Jeconiah, Joachin 2 Kings Ch 24; 2 Chronicles Ch 36

King Jehoiachin was age 18 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he ruled in Jerusalem for three months.

Scripture says that Jehoiachin did evil, in a manner as did his father.

King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon laid siege on Jerusalem. King Jehoiachin went out to meet Nebuchadnezzar, accompanied by his mother, wives, eunuchs, and 7,000 of his army officers and support military men. Also, Jehoiachin brought out treasures to give to Nebuchadnezzar as tribute. The king of Babylon took all of them into captivity, and settled them as servants in Babylon. This was around 597 B.C.

King Jehoiachin could no longer reign in Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar appointed the uncle of Jehoiachin to rule the Kingdom of Judah. His name was Mathanias, but the king of Babylon changed his name to Sedecias, or Zedekiah.

Zedekiah (reign 597-586 B.C.) aka Sedecias 2 Kings Ch 25; 2 Chronicles Ch 36 King Zedekiah was age 21 when he assumed the throne of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and he reigned 11 years in Jerusalem.

Scripture says that Zedekiah did evil before the Lord, in the manner of King Jehoiakim before him.

King Zedekiah revolted against Babylon after a few years. In about 588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar brought his army once again to besiege Jerusalem. For two years the people of Jerusalem had no way out. They ran out of bread, and famine spread throughout the city.

A breach was made into the walls of Jerusalem, and the king fled along with many of the army officers he had left. Nebuchadnezzar caught King Zedekiah in Jericho. Zedekiah received very cruel punishment, and then was bound in chain and sent to Babylon.

In 586 B.C., a general of the army of the king of Babylon finished the conquest of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. In Jerusalem, the temple was set on fire. All the walls of Jerusalem were broken down. All the buildings were set on fire. Judah became a province of Babylon.

The people of Jerusalem were sent to Babylon, many were killed in the city of Reblatha in the land of Emath. Some poor people of Judah were left to tend to vines and handle animal husbandry.

In the beginning of the reign of Evilmerodach, King of Babylon, he took King Jehoiachin of Judah out of the prison in Babylon. The king of Babylon then gave Jehoiachin a favored seat among the kings conquered, and given fine garments and an allowance. And he was treated well until the end of his days in Babylon.

Who scripture calls the Babylonian King Evilmerodach, is called Amel-Marduk by history expert on Babylon. He succeeded Nebuchadnezzar II to the throne of Babylon around 562 B.C. Two other Kings of Babylon who followed in succession were King Naboald and King Belshazzar (combined reigns 555-538 B.C.)

Jeremiah prophesied that the exile and deportation into Babylon would last seventy years.



Judea after the Exile in Babylon

538 B.C. Persian King Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon. Babylon and Assyria become provinces of the Persian Empire. Cyrus issues an edict that the Jews may return Jerusalem. Judah becomes a province of Persian Empire. The Persians are generally friendly to the Jews.

c. 520 B.C. Zorobabel (aka Zerubbabel) leads a group of Jews back to Judea. This is roughly seventy years since the exile in Babylon began. The city of Jerusalem is in disrepair because the destruction Babylon did to it. People from Samaria and Moab and other areas moved into Judah, and they make it difficult for the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the towns. Persian King Darius the Great appropriates money for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem. Wikipedia reports that Zorobabel was appointed governor of the Judea province of Persia by Darius, and that he was the grandson of one of the last kings of Judah. Wikipedia also reports that 42,350 Jews came back to Judea from captivity in Zorobabel's band. Most of this can be verified by Josephus, the ancient Jewish historian. Zorobabel, with funding from Persia, lays groundwork for the Second Temple. Solomon's temple is called the first temple, but the Second Temple is built in its ruins.

http://biblehub.com/library/josephus/the_antiquities_of_the_jews/chapter_1_how_cyrus_king.htm

445 B.C. Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem, becomes the Persian governor of Judea.. The city's walls are rebuilt, from Persian monies. He governs under King Antaxerxes (465-424 B.C.) of Persia, the son of Xerxes the Great. Ezra (aka Ezdras) is a priest and probably a contemporary of Nehemiah who works to teach the law of Moses to the Jews. However, Josephus reports that Ezra lived during the reign of Xerxes the Great.

320 B.C. Judea and the rest of Palestine becomes a province of the empire of Alexander the Great. Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire, and also Egypt. This brings Greek influences into the region. Alexander dies in Babylon in 323 B.C. After Alexander dies, his empire is divided between four of his generals. Seleucus was the general who had control of Judea, and he began the Seleucid Empire.

198 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, defeats the Ptolemy pharaoh of Egypt. Antiochus thus gains possession of Palestine. More Greek and Hellenistic influences heads towards Jerusalem and Judea.

166-135 B.C. Rise of the Machabees. After King Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria works to suppress the religion of the Jews, the brothers Maccabees rise up in resistance. Mathathias, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon rule over the Jews.

135-37 B.C. Hasmonean Dynasty. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, becomes high priest and ruler. Judea is semi-autonomous now under the Seleucids, then more independent when the Seleucid Empire becomes less powerful. It become a client state of Rome in 63 B.C.

63 B.C. Roman General Pompey captures Jerusalem. Palestine becomes more of a vassal of Rome.

c. 37-4 B.C. Herod the Great is appointed king of the Jews by Rome, uniting the regions of the Jews. Judea becomes more of a client kingdom of Rome. After Herod the Great’s death, Palestine is divided into four tetrarchies.