Ancient History Timeline

Ancient History Timeline



The story of mankind in ancient history also includes the chapters of man's prehistory, before writing systems had been developed. Before science, it was thought that the dawn of man was some 6,000 years ago, about 4000 B.C. According to science, the dawn of man was some 200,000 years ago, and that there were lesser hominid creatures before that. When it comes to things like this, science is in a very weak position because it does not assume the existence of an Almighty God. These history timelines do assume the existence of such an Almighty God. According to the Old and New Testaments, a thousand years are as a single day in the time-clock of God. So in God's time, 365,000 man-years of science could fit into one year in the calendar of the Almighty. The prehistory of mankind would be within such a calendar. The story of man and part of his prehistory, begins here about 6,000 years ago. Some of the dating reckoned by science of prehistory events of mankind are also included below, for comparative purposes.

Scriptural references--Psalm 90, v. 4 and 2 Peter, 3:8.



--Prehistory of Man

200,000 B.C.--First Homo Sapiens appear, according to science. Human Beings.

200,000 B.C.--Paleolithic Period--Old Stone Age; the dating according to science.

50,000 B.C.--Mesolithic Period--Middle Stone Age

10,000 B.C.-- Neolithic Period--New Stone Age

15,000 B.C. Cave Paintings in Southwest France; the dating by science
10,000 B.C. End of the last Ice Age
10,000 B.C. Gobekli Tepe--southeastern Turkey, an early temple, perhaps for burial rites and ancestor worship
8000 B.C. Catal Huyuk--in Turkey, about 400 miles west of Gobekli Tepe; near obsidian rock quarries for stone tools; house units combined together with entrance on roofs. A hunter-gatherer community; no evidence of agriculture or pastoral activity.
8000 B.C. Neolithic Revolution of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry begins
5000 B.C. Village Settlement at Tell-es-Sawwan on Tigris River, Mesopotamia; the dating according to science. Small walled settlement with individual houses; a "palace" for the chieftain; a small temple structure; a granary and area for animals. About 200 people
5000 B.C Copper Age begins--end of the Stone Age (Neolithic Period ends), dating reckoned by science.


4000 B.C. Beginning of cities on the Euphrates River at Uruk and others, Sumer 3500 B.C. Wheel invented in Sumer, Mesopotamia

3500 B.C Bronze Age begins

1500 B.C Iron Age begins.

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--History of Mankind



Early Civilizations Develop around the World



3000 B.C Writing first appears in Uruk and Sumer, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers--Mesopotamia. History begins. Writing is in cuneiform script on clay tablets. Sumerian written language develops; it is not Semitic or Indo-European, and is not part of any other language family.

3000 B.C. The Pharaoh Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt, capitals of Memphis and Thebes. Begins the First Dynasty--the Old Kingdom (3000 B.C. to 2181 B.C., Dynasties 1 thru 6); The Middle Kingdom (2055 B.C. to 1650 B.C., Dynasty 12); New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C., Dynasties 18 thru 20). In between the Kingdom periods are Intermediate Periods of instability and invasions; order and harmony, Ma'at, are lost. Before 3000 is the Predynastic Period, with the Scorpion King. Written hieroglyphics is developed, so ancients Egyptians can record events and transactions. Civilization develops along the fertile banks of the Nile.

3000 B.C Indus River civilization begins in India. Significant cities develop in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. A writing system develops which are now undecipherable. Archeologists have found huge ruins in these areas.

3000 B.C In Ireland, the Newgrange passage grave is built in County Meath, and dolmens are erected throughout the island. In England, Stonehenge is built on Salisbury plain. In Brittany, France a complex alignment of standing stone monuments are built at Carnac.

3000 B.C. In the region north of the Black Sea, the Yamna culture is growing using Copper Age technologies. This is the culture that first develops the proto Indo-European language. This culture divides further and expands both into the Danube region, and also into Bactria (current Afghanistan). From these areas, Indo-European languages spreads to Europe and India.

1900 B.C. Minoan culture on Crete; Palatial Period; Knossos is capital; Linear A writing--not yet decipherable. A proto-Greek Aegean culture. Minoan was not Indo-European language—it belonged to no known family of languages.

1750 B.C. China--Shang Dynasty begins. Developments along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. Early Chinese writing is developing.

1600 B.C. Mycenaean culture on the Greek mainland. Beginnings of Greek civilization. Indo-European. Linear B writing--some is decipherable.

1500 B.C. Olmec civilization in Mexico. They grow maize corn, and carve huge heads of basalt stone. Descendants of Asiatic peoples who crossed the Bering Straits land-bridge into North America before the end of the last Ice Age. In Peru in 900 B.C., the Chavin culture grows potatoes and domesticates llamas. Later comes the Nazca culture. Norte Chico culture.

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Early Mesopotamia



2800 B.C. Gilgamesh in city-state of Uruk in Sumer--legendary time he lived in Mesopotamia. Uruk was a walled city on the Euphrates River. It had a large temple to the goddess Ishtar (Inanna) and a “White Temple” dedicated to the sky-god Anu. Uruk is a center of trade, agriculture, and learning. Experts think this was the first fully-functioning city in history. In Genesis of the Old Testament, Uruk is referred as Erech or Arach, depending on the translation. In Sumer, lower Mesopotamia, many independent cities develop.

2350 B.C. Sargon the Great of the city of Akkad conquers all the city-states in Sumer, and establishes an Akkadian Empire. The people of Akkad speak a Semitic language, and it replaces Sumerian; though they still use a cuneiform script on clay tablets for writing.

2000 B.C. Powerful dynasty in Sumerian city-state of Ur re-emerges. They build a huge ziggurat temple to the moon god, perhaps similar to the Tower of Babel. The Biblical Abraham came from here soon thereafter.

1800 B.C. Babylon conquers and establishes an empire all up and down Mesopotamia. (The city of Babylon was on the Euphrates River, about 53 miles south of the present Baghdad.) Amorite peoples are key to establishing this first Babylonian Empire. Babylonian King Hammurabi sets up a legal code, one of the earliest legal codes in history. After the death of Hammurabi, the barbarian Kassites conquer Babylon; they rule until the Assyrian Empire takes command the region of lower Mesopotamia.



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Egypt's Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom



2686 B.C. End of the Second Dynasty in Egypt. The first two dynasties (3000 to 2686 ) are often called the Early Dynastic Period.

2500 B.C . Pyramids of Giza built in Egypt; for Pharoahs Khufu (Cheops), Kafre, and Menkare. Sphinx also built at this time. This was the time of the powerful 4th Dynasty (2613 B.C.- 2494 B.C.) of the Old Kingdom, with five major pharaohs and also minor ones. Main capital is in Mempis--in the northern part of the Nile.

2181 B.C First Intermediate Period begins. Anarchy descends as nobles acting as warlords in the old northern and southern kingdoms gain independence from pharaoh. Even the capitals of Memphis and Thebes are lost from the pharaoh, who governs only an area around Heracleopis.

2055 B.C Middle Kingdom begins, lasts until 1650 B.C. Princes of Thebes regain Egypt from the warlord nobles; the pharaoh is in control again. A great necropolis is built at Abydos, and more concerns about the afterlife is evident. Main capital moves to Thebes, in the southern part of the Nile in Egypt.

1650 B.C. Second Intermediate Period begins. Chaos and disorder come to Egypt with the invasion of the Hyksos people and the south is taken over by the Kushites. Period ends with the beginning of the New Kingdom in 1550 B.C.





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Early Story of the Jewish Peoples



1850 B.C. Abraham--about the date of his time and the founding of the Jewish people.

1230 B.C. Moses--about the date of his time

1000 B.C. David--about the date of his time. David makes Jerusalem the capital of the Jewish Kingdom.

950 B.C. Solomon--about the date of his time. Solomon builds the first temple. Also a lavish palace.

930 B.C. Jewish State splits into Northern Kingdom with the capital of Samaria, and the Southern Kingdom with the capital of Jerusalem.

722 B.C. Fall of Northern Kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians.

587 B.C. Fall of Southern Kingdom of Judah to the Babylonians.

539 B.C. Persians conquer Babylon. Persian king frees Jews there.

c. 450 BC Under Ezra, Jews have a semi-independent kingdom protected by the Persians.

323 BC. Death of Alexander the Great means that the Jewish kingdom must undergo tension as Henllenized Greek culture and dominance make their way to Judea.

166 B.C. Judas Maccabee revolt against Seleucid empire of Hellenized pagans.

110 B.C. The Hasmonean Kingdom is an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea, run by the Maccabees. Lasts until Rome conquers Judea in 63 B.C.

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Egypt's New Kingdom



1550 B.C. Egypt's powerful 18th Dynasty begins-- Pharaohs Ahmose I, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, and Queens Hatshepsut and Nefertiti. Beginning of the New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1069 B.C.), with the main capital at Thebes.. Pharaoh Thutmose III wins the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 B.C. in present-day Israel; he defeats the peoples of Canaan and the Mitanni--Egypt gains control of Judea. Huge temple complex at Karnak, near Thebes (modern Luxur). Valley of Kings royal necropolis is built near Thebes. Queen Hatshepsut has a huge tomb complex.

1500 B.C. The Hittites emerge as a powerful state in Asia Minor. Capital at Hattusa--archeologists have found the ruins of the city. Hittites spoke an Indo-European language; archeologists have found a library of their writings, and some of it is decipherable. Hittites were first to use iron weapons. By the 1300s BC under King Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite Empire encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The Hittites and the Egyptians of the New Kingdom become rivals for world domination—well, the world from their perspective.

1292 B.C. Egypt's powerful 19th Dynasty begins--Pharaohs Rameses II, Seti I, and Merneptah. Ramses II wins the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C. in Syria; he defeats the Hittites and their King Muwatalli II--the aftermath results in history's first peace treaty. Battles with the Sea Peoples towards the end, during the reign of Ramsess III.

1069 B.C. Third Intermediate Period begins; lasts until 664 B.C. Chaos and disorder again in Egypt. Sea People cause havoc during the Bronze Age Collapse. Nubians take the throne at c. 715 B.C., with Ethiopian Shesbonk as king.

664 B.C. Late Period begins; lasts until Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. At some times native Egyptians become pharaoh once again, although outside empires are able to conquer Egypt. During the Late Period, the Assyrians conquer Egypt in 670 B.C., and the Persians conquer Egypt in 525 B.C.

850 B.C. Homer in Greece

753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome.



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The Assyrian Empire and the New Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia



New Assyrian Empire



c. 2025-1378 BC Old Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire. Two hundred years before this, the Assyrian kings lived in tents. Ushpia was the last Assyrian king to live in a tent--living as a nomad. King Ushpia was designated by later Assyrians as the founder of the temple dedicated to Ashur in the city of Aššur.

1365-1050 BC Middle Assyrian Empire Bronze Age Empire.

911 B.C. Beginning point of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Iron Age Empire. During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language. . The Assyrian priests also spoke Sumerian, believing the gods of Assyria spoke the language of ancient Sumer.

883 BC King Ashurnasirpal II’s reign begins, rules until 859 BC. He began a large move of expansion and conquest, exacting tribute from many areas. He moved his capital to the city of Nimrud (from Assur).

859 BC Shalmaneser III’s reign begins, rules until 824 BC. Continues the expansion and conquest campaign of his father, Ashurnasirpal. Captures Babylon and areas of Arameans in Syria. King of Northern Jewish kingdom does homage to Shalmaneser III. He builds a palace at Nimrud.

744 BC Tiglath-Pileser III’s reign begins, rules until 727 BC. Biblical. He introduced advanced civil, military, and political systems into the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Changes to the Assyrian government and administration of the provinces, considerably improving governance of the empire. Developed Assyria's first professional standing army. Nearly doubled the size of the Assyrian Empire., which now included Babylon. Seized Damascus and made inroads to conquering the Northern Jewish Kingdom. Deported many Jews into the Assyrian Empire.

727 BC Shalmaneser V’s reign begins, rules until 722 BC. Biblical. Son of Tiglath-Pileser III. After three years of siege he took the city of Samaria, and thus conquered the Northern Jewish Kingdom of Israel. The Jewish populations he deported to various lands of the empire, (together with ones deported about ten years earlier by Tiglath-Pileser III) are known as the "Ten Lost Tribes" of Israel. The pagan populations he settled in Samaria instead form the origins of the Samaritans

721–BC Sargon II’s reign begins, rules until 705 Biblical Another son of Tiglath-Pileser III. Sargon was beset with widespread rebellions by the beginning of his rule. The Biblical Merdodach-Baladan, a chieftain of the Chaldean tribes of the south, declared himself king of Babylon in 721 BC. A year later, Sargon and Merdodach-Baladan battled east of Babylon. Babylon was supported by Elam. The Elamite troops checked the Assyrian army, and Merdodach-Baladan retained control of the south and the title of king of Babylon. Syro-Hittite city of Carchemish rebelled. Sargon II killed by the Indo-European coalition of Cimmerians, Skythians, and Urartu.

705–BC Sennacherib’s reign begins, rules until 681 BC. Biblical. Son of Sargon II. Sennacherib makes capital at Nineveh. . The refusal of the people of Babylon to accept Assyrian rule, culminating in his destruction and subjegation of the city in 689 BC by Assyrian army. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned from Babylonia to the western part of the empire, where Hezekiah of Judah, incited by Egypt and Merodach-Baladan, had renounced Assyrian allegiance. The rebellion involved various small states in the area: Sidon and Ashkelon were taken by force and a string of other cities and states, including Byblos, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom then paid tribute without resistance. Ekron called on Egypt for help but the Egyptians were defeated. Sennacherib then turned on Jerusalem, Hezekiah's capital. He besieged the city and gave its surrounding towns to Assyrian vassal rulers in Ekron, Gaza and Ashdod. However, Sennacherib did not breach the city, and Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler. Sennacherib was assassinated, quite possibly by sons.

681–BC Esarhaddon’s reign begins, rules until 669 BC. Biblical. Son of Sennacherib. Did battle with Urartu, also known as the Kingdom of Van/Armenia. The Sidonian king who had risen up against the Assyrian king, was defeated in 677 BC and beheaded. The town of Sidon was destrored and the population was deported to Assyria. A share of the plunder went to the loyal king of rival Tyre . In 671 BC, Esarhaddon went to war against Pharaoh Taharqa of Egypt, a pharaoh from Nubia. Assyria took the northern part of Egypt. Debilitating illness in his old age that left him incapable of governing so that he abdicated some time in 668 BC in favor of his son Ashurbanipal. He died a year later.

668 BC Ashurbanipal’s reign begins, rules until 627 BC. The son of Esarhaddon. Built Library in Nineve. Ashurbanipal defeated the Elamites. Ashurbanipal sent an army against Egypt in 667 BC that defeated the Nubian king Taharqa, near Memphis, while Ashurbanipal stayed at his capital in Nineveh. At the same time, some Egyptian vassals rebelled and were also defeated. All of the vanquished leaders save one were sent to Nineveh. Only Necho I, the native Egyptian Prince of Sais, convinced the Assyrians of his loyalty and was sent back to become the Assyrian puppet Pharaoh of Egypt. Assyria was by then master of the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from the Caucasus in the north to North Africa and the Arabian peninsula in the south, and from Cyprus and the east Mediterranean in the west, to central Iran in the east. Ashurbanipal enjoyed the subjugation of a myriad of nations and peoples, including Babylon, Chaldea, Media, Persia, Egypt, Libya, Elam, Gutium, Parthia, Cissia, Phrygia, Mannea, Corduene, Aramea, Urartu, Lydia, Cilicia, Commagene, Caria, Cappadocia, Phoenicia, Canaan, the Suteans, Sinai, Israel, Judah, Samarra, Moab, Edom, Ammon, Nabatea, Arabia, the Neo-Hittites, Dilmun, Meluhha, Nubia, Scythia, Cimmeria, Armenia and Cyprus, with few problems during Ashurbanipal's reign. For the time being, the dual monarchy in Mesopotamia went well, with Shamash-shum-ukin accepting his position as the vassal of his brother peaceably.

605 B.C. Battle of Carchemish. Twenty years after Ashurbanipal, Assyria came to an end--for all time. Battle of Carchemish between the armies of Egypt allied with the remnants of the army of the former Assyrian Empire against the armies of Babylonia, allied with the Medes, Persians, and Scythians. Earlier, at the Fall of Harran (609 BC) the Babylonians and Medes defeated an Assyrian-Egyptian alliance, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an independent state. At Carchemish, Pharoah Necho II of Egypt and the Assyrians fought against King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and King Cyaxares of the Medes. Prior, Pharoah Necho II had defeated Judah at the Battle of Megiddo, and Judah's King Josiah was killed. Pharoah Necho and the Assyrians were defeated though at Carchemish, and the Assyrian Empire was no more. This led to the subsequent rise of the Babylonian and Persian Empires.



New Babylonian Empire (625 B.C. to 539 B.C.)



626 B.C. Babylonians rebel against the Assyrians, and are able to set up their own kingdom a year after the death of the powerful Assyrian King Ashurbanipal. Babylonians led by Nabopolassar; he and his son Nebuchadnezzar become the first two kings of the new Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar’s reign lasts about eleven years. He formed an alliance with King Cyaxares of the Medes in order to destroy the Assyrian Empire.

612 B.C. Babylonians, often called Chaldeans, help sack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Seven years later the Babylonians and their allies definitively defeat the Assyrians at the Battle of Carchemish. The capital of the empire moves to the city of Babylon. From the beginning to end, the new Babylonian kingdom lasts only long enough to produce six kings. Chief god of the Babylonians is Marduk.

604 B.C. King Nebuchadnezzar begins a powerful reign of Babylon, a reign that lasts 42 years--until 562 B.C. Lavish architectural structures like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate are built. Nebuchadnezzar was the main general in the defeat of the Assyrians at Carchemish in 605.

562 B.C. Amel-Marduk begins two year reign; the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Named Evil-Merodach in the Old Testament narrative. Assasibated by his brother-in-law Neriglissar, who becomes king for four years—followed by Neriglissar’s son, who has a reign of one year.

556 B.C. Nabonidus becomes king of Babylon. Wikipedia: “The Marduk priesthood hated Nabonidus because of his suppression of Marduk's cult and his elevation of the cult of the moon-god Sin.” He was from Harran, and his mother had been connected with the temple of the moon god there. Nabonidus’s son Prince Belshazzar often ruled in his stead.

539 B.C. Babylon falls to the Persian King Cyrus the Great. Babylonian King Nabonidus is deposed, as is his son Prince Belshazzar. Babylon never emerges as a kingdom again.

141 B.C. The city of Babylon is abandoned. The city becomes a ruins. It is discovered again by explorers and archeologists in the 1800s. The ruins are excavated from the desert.



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Persian Empire



By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE. In ancient times, some of these places were called Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Lycia, Colchis, Media, Parthia, Bactria. The Persians built a Royal Highway across their empire, enabling products from the East (via the Silk Road) to reach the West. The Persians also had a policy of toleration that enabled people from different lands to co-exist and maintain large scale trade routes to remain open peaceably. The Persians practiced Zoroastrianism as a major religion, with the beliefs of monotheism and the battle between good and evil.

Achaemenid Dynasty and the Persian Empire (550–330 BC)

705 BC. The early dynastic rulers of Persia before it became an empire were these four members of the Achaemenid family in succession. 1) Achaemenes. First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom --705 BC; 2) Teispes. Son of Achaemenes-- 640 BC; 3) Cyrus I. Son of Teispes 580 BC; 4) Cambyses I. Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus the Great --550 BC.

560 BC. Cyrus the Great Founder of the empire; King of the "four corners of the world" 560–530 BC Cyrus built his empire by first conquering the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He led an expedition into Central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception". Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, and was alleged to have died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.

530 BC Cambyses II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 530–522 BC Cyrus the Great was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to conquer Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule.

522 BC. Darius the Great. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BC Darius built up Persepolis ant turned it into the capital of the Persian Empire. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra–Nehemiah.

486 BC. Xerxes the Great King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 486–465 BC Xerxes I is one of the Persian kings identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther. Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. Xerxes oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. He is also notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until the losses at Salamis and Plataea. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.

465 BC Artaxerxes I 465–424 BC Portrayed in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah. Artaxerxes is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation. Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis.

405 BC Artaxerxes II 405–358 BC. Artaxerxes became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies during the Peloponnesian war, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II, invaded Asia Minor in 396-395 BC. He forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. Expedition against Egypt failed. From 372 BC many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt. Artaxerxes II finally quashed the Revolt of the Satraps by 362 BC.



358 BC. Artaxerxes III. King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt (Regained control over Egypt after 50 years) 358–338 BC. Soon after becoming king, Artaxerxes murdered all of the royal family to secure his place as king. He started two major campaigns against Egypt. The first campaign failed, and was followed up by rebellions throughout the western part of his empire. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes defeated Nectanebo II, the Pharaoh of Egypt, driving him from Egypt, stopping a revolt in Phoenicia on the way. In Artaxerxes' later years, Philip II of Macedon's power was increasing in Greece, where he tried to convince the Greeks to revolt against the Achaemenid Empire. His activities were opposed by Artaxerxes, and with his support, the city of Perinthus resisted a Macedonian siege.

336 BC. Darius III King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt; last ruler of the empire 336–330 BC n 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius. Before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by his cousin Satrap Bessus.



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Ancient Greece



1184 B.C. (?) Troy falls to the Greeks, according to legend. Troy actually did exist just below the Hellespont (Dardanelles) on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor (Turkey); German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann found the ruins of Troy in the 1870s.

1100 B.C. Dorian invasion of the Greek mainland, and the beginning of a Dark Age in Greece--that lasts until the Greeks begin applying the idea of a polis. --Geometric Period (c. 900-700 B.C.) -- Orientalizing Period (c. 700-600 B.C.) --Later, during the Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.)

900 B.C. Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians continue to invade. Dark Age continues. Geometric Period art is a phase of Greek art, characterized largely by geometric motifs in vase painting, that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages, circa 900 BC – 700 BC. Its center was in Athens, and from there the style spread amongst the trading cities of the Aegean.

800s B.C. Greeks develop the idea of the polis regarding what their cities should be like; they apply this idea in their own cities. The Greeks develop colonies in the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). The power of the idea and its application brings Greece out of the Dark Age.

Periods of Greek History:

Archaic Period (800 BC – 480 BC)

Late Archaic Period (560 BC – 480 BC)

Classical Period (480 BC – 323 BC)

Hellenistic Period (323 BC – 146 BC)



850 B.C. Period of Homer

800 B.C. Lycurgus of Sparta--lawgiver of Sparta who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness, and austerity.

776 B.C. Beginning of the first Olympic games

750 B.C. Period of Hesiod

621 B.C. Code of Draco—-Draco, an Athenian lawgiver, issues code of laws, with many crimes punishable by death. First recorded legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by a written code to be enforced only by a court. Draco was the first democratic legislator, inasmuch as he was requested by the Athenian citizens to be a lawgiver for the city.

594 B.C. Solon reforms—Solon an Athenian statesman, becomes Archon, captures Salamis from Megarians—later, when member of the Areopagus is appointed to effect social reforms in order to preserve order in Athens, which include the abolition of the security of debts on a debtor's person, returning exiled Athenian slaves, changing the value of weights and measures to the Corinthian standard, prohibiting the export of grain from Attica and encouraging the planting of olives, established the property classes and the council of 400.

585 B.C. Thales the pre-Socratic philosopher correctly predicts an eclipse. He was one of the Milesians thinkers, along with Anaximander and Anaximenes. Later came the pre-Socratic philosopher named Heraclites with his theories on change. Also, Pythagoras the mathmetician.

561 B.C. Pisistratus regime, to 527 B.C. was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period Pisistratus championing of the lower class of Athens, the is an early example of populism. While in power, Pisistratus did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor, and funded many religious and artistic programs. His legacy lies primarily in his instituting the Panathenaic Festival Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Pisistratus and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias. Pisistratus was the brother-in-law of Cleisthenes; however, Pisistratus was much older.

508 B.C. Cleisthenes was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." Also, he was credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens’ assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics. He reorganized the Boulecouncil, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe. He also introduced the bouletic oath, "To advise according to the laws what was best for the people". The court system was reorganized and had from 201–5001 jurors selected each day, up to 500 from each tribe. It was the role of the Boulecouncil to propose laws to the assembly of voters, who convened in Athens around forty times a year for this purpose. The bills proposed could be rejected, passed or returned for amendments by the assembly. Cleisthenes was the uncle of Pericles' mother and of Alcibiades' maternal grandfather

492 B.C. First Persian War, to 490 B.C. Achaemeaid Dynasty in Persia.

480 B.C. Second Persian War, 479 B.C. Themistocles in Athens King Leonidas in Sparta.

477 B.C. Delian League

457 B.C. Ascendancy of Pericles, to 429 B.C. Pericles was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the Golden Age—specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family. Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens" Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century. Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people. Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.

431 B.C. Peloponnesian War, to 404 B.C.

415 B.C. Athenian expedition to Syracuse in Sicily with Alcibiades, lasts two years.

399 B.C. Trial and execution of Socrates; he's found guilty of corrupting his students and for being impious towards the gods. Plato was a student of Socrates; he forms a school in Athens called the Academy. Aristotle is the student of Plato; he founds a school in Athens called the Lyceum, and later becomes the teacher of Alexander the Great.

359 B.C. Phillip of Macedon begins his reign.

336 B.C. Alexander the Great's reign, until he dies young in 323 B.C. at age thirty-three--reign of 13 years; he conquered much of the Western world--but not Rome, which was a young Republic then, and not Carthage, a Phoenician foundation city with an small empire that was about to be conquered by Rome.

323 B.C. Hellenism period begins, with the spreading of Greek culture throughout the Western world.



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The Hellenistic Period



The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean and Near Eastern history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. At this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its peak in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, experiencing prosperity and progress in the arts, exploration, literature, theatre, architecture, music, mathematics, philosophy, and science. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele and a syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism in Bactria and Northwest India.

301 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire was divided up between four of his generals-- 1) Cassander got Greece; 2) Ptolemy got Egypt and parts of the southern Levant; 3) Lysimachus got the region around Thace and western and northern Anatolia; and 4) Seleucus I Nicator got the remaining territory stretching from southeastern Anatolia and the northern Levant to the Indus River.

200 BC. By this time, Anatolia (Asia Minor, now Turkey) was divided up into smaller kingdoms--Pergamum in western Anatolia; Bithynia and Pontus in the northern part; Galatia in the central part; and Cappadocia and Armenia in the eastern part. Some of the kings of these kingdoms were Pergamum--Attalus; Bithynia--Nicomedes; Pontus--Mithridates; Galatia --Leonnorios; Cappadocia--Ariarathes; and Armenia--Tigranes the Great

200 BC. Also by this time, other kingdoms in the empire became independent--Nabatean Kingdom, Parthia, Judea, Greco-Bactria, and Indo-Greek kingdoms.

Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as Serapis, and the Syrian gods Atargatis and Hadad, as well as a Jewish synagogue, all coexisting on the island of Delos alongside classical Greek deities. A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized Atargatis) and Isis-Demeter. Mystery religions became popular during the Hellenistic period. The apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes

The Hellenistic Period saw the rise of five schools of philosophy: 1) Stoicism of Zeno; 2) Epicurianism; 3) Hedonism of Aristippus the Younger: 4) Skepticism of Pyrrho of Elis; and 5) Cynicism of Diogenes Neoplatonism was a strand of Platonic philosophy that later emerged against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. Plotinus and Porphyry were two philosophers associated with Neoplatonism.

One of the cultural achievements of the Hellenistic period was the Library of Alexandria, which was estimated to have had 700,000 volumes. Hellenistic art had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great.



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The Roman Republic (and the earlier Roman Kingdom)



753 B.C. Traditional date of the founding of Rome. Period of the Roman Kingdom. Story of Romulus and Remus. In all, there are seven successive kings of Rome, the first being Romulus. He set up a Senate consisting of 100 heads of the prominent families in Rome. These became the original patricians, the ruling families of Rome.

616 B.C. Etruscan kings of Rome, three in succession, ending in 509 B.C. In this period the Servian Wall around Rome is begun, enclosing the "seven hills of Rome"; this Roman wall is begun by Etruscan king of Rome Servius Tullius. Senate size is increased to 200 members; the new 100 members are called heads of the minor patrician families, while the earlier 100 members are called the heads of the major patrician families.

509 B.C. Founding of the Roman Republic. Roman Lucius Junius Brutus leads revolt overthrowing the last king, Etruscan King Tarquin the Proud. Lucius Junius Brutus becomes one of the first two Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Senate is given primary power in Rome, composed of patricians. SPQR means "The Senate and the People of Rome."

460 B.C. The Comitia or Assembly of the Tribes is established, composed of plebeians.

450 B.C. The laws of the Twelve Tables is enacted.

390 B.C. The Celts under the chieftain Brennus defeat Rome in a battle, and proceed to sack Rome. They were called Cisalpine Gauls.

364 B.C. First Punic War with Carthage. End of the Third Punic War, the last war with Carthage, is 146 B.C. Hannibal of Carthage and Scipio Africanus of Rome. Rome defeats Carthage in all three wars, conquers all Carthage territories in Mediterranean, and annexes Sicily.

272 B.C. Rome conquers and unifies the rest of Italy, except Sicily and some regions in northern Italy. Sicily was conquered in 241 B.C., the city-state of Syracuse was conquered in 212 B.C., and northern Italy was conquered in 191 B.C.--when the Romans made Cisalpine Gaul one of its provinces.

146 B.C Rome conquers Greece.

133 B.C. Time of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, ending in 121. Optimates v.s Populares-- Roman political parties in opposition. The Gracchus brothers were tribunes, and were Populares in favor of land reform and more political power to the plebeians.

78 B.C. Sulla dies of natural causes after retirement from statesmanship. He had been a temporary dictator of Rome, reorganized the government, restored some order to Rome after difficulties in the period of Marius, and stepped down from the dictatorship--only to be elected as one of the two consuls afterwards. Politically, Sulla was an Optimate.

71 B.C. Crassus defeats slave revolt of Spartacus, but about two decades later Crassus is killed in Parthia in a failed attempt to conquer the Parthians.

63 B.C. Roman general Pompey the Great conquers Jerusalem, Palestine becomes a Roman province. Pompey conquers Syria and parts of Asia Minor

60 B.C. First Triumvirate is formed--Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.

58 B.C. Julius Caesar begins to conquer Gaul. Takes seven years to complete, and is ended when he defeats Celtic chieftain Vercingentrix near present-day Dijon, France.

49 B.C. Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon

46 B.C. Julius Caesar becomes dictator of Rome--lasts two years

44 B.C. Assassination of Julius Caesar on the floor of the Roman Senate.

43 B.C. Second Triumvirate begins--Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus

27 B.C. End of the Roman Republic; beginning of the Roman Empire,

10 B.C. Herod the Great rebuilds the temple; he was appointed as King of the Jews by the Romans--with the understanding that Herod would be Rome's vassal as a client kingdom. He's unpopular among the Jews. When he dies he is buried in a mausoleum near Bethlehem. Soon after Herod's death, the Romans appoint a series of governors (procurators) who have the real power in Judea; these governors are Romans who answer to the Roman emperor.



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Jesus Christ is born, some time around 4 B.C. and 1 A.D.

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The Roman Empire



Julio-Claudian Emperors reigns 27 B.C. to 68 A.D.—Emperor Caesar Augustus (reign 27 B.C.-14 A.D.) actual name Octavian-- grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Long reign and establishes stability as the first Roman emperor. Pax Romana. Emperor Tiberius (14-37 A.D.) He doesn’t like to govern and removes to the island Capri, leaving Sejanus to govern Rome—the latter is the prefect or head of the Praetorian Guard. Emperor Caligula (37-41 A.D.) Essentially a madman. He declares himself a god and puts a huge statue of himself in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. The Praetorian Guard eventually assassinates him. Emperor Claudius (41-54 A.D.) He’s declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. During his reign Rome takes control of Britain. Dies of poisoning by Nero’s mother—she later dies of poisoning by Nero. Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.) Another madman. Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. Nero builds himself a huge villa in the ruins with a colossal statue of himself. Nero blames the fire on the Christians and begins the Roman persecution of the Christians. Nero arranges his own death after the Roman Senate declares him an enemy of the state, to be brought to the Forum and beaten to death. Miscellaneous: Wife of Augustus is Livia, and his exiled daughter is Julia. Livia is also the mother of Tiberius; Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus. The sister of Caligula is Drusilla. The wife of Claudius is Messalina.

Flavian Emperors 69 A.D. to 96 A.D.--Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. Considered poor emperors. Emperor Vespasian (69 - 79 AD) Began the building the Roman Colosseum on the land of Nero’s palace. Made an addition to the Imperial Forum. Emperor Titus (79 -81 AD)--the son of Vespasian. Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Arch of Titus—for his victories in Jerusalem. Emperor Domitian (81 - 96 AD)-- brother of Titus. Declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. One of the heavy periods of Christian persecution. Assassinated.

Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian 96 A.D. to 138 A.D. Beginning of the succession of the “Five Good Emperors,” per Gibbon. Emperor Nerva (96- 98 AD). Declared emperor by the Roman Senate. Assures peaceful succession. The Forum of Nerva. Emperor Trajan (98- 117 AD). Conquest of Dacia (now Romania). Annexes the Nabataean Kingdom, Armenia, and Mesopotamia after a successful war with Parthia. Puts down a Jewish revolt. He extends the Roman Empire to its furthest boundary limits. The Forum of Trajan (with its major library), Trajan’s Column, and Trajan’s Market. Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138 AD). A humanist; loves things Greek. After a revolt in Britain, he constructs Hadrian’s Wall. Builds the Pantheon, and outside of Rome—Hadrian’s Villa. Ends the Jewish revolt. Builds the Mausoleum of Hadrian, now the Castel Sant'Angelo. Assures peaceful succession of the next two emperors. The four emperors—Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius—account for a combined reign of 82 years.

Antonine Emperors 138 A.D. to 192 A.D.--Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus. Emperor Antonius Pius (38 – 161 AD). Roman successful invasion of modern Scotland; Antonine Wall built. Temple Antonius and Faustina built in Roman Forum (now a church). Ambassador from India at the Roman court. Antonius Pius sent an ambassador to China. Protected the Christians throughout the empire. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 AD). Like a Stoic philosopher-king; writes the Meditations, in Greek. Wars with Parthians when they depose the Armenian king, and with the Goths when they cross the Danube. Antonine Plague in 165—perhaps smallpox, kills five million in the Roman Empire. Persecuted the Christians. Pax Romana ends in 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius—the empire begins its decline. Emperor Commodus (177 – 192 AD). Natural son of Marcus Aurelius. Considered a very poor emperor. Declared himself to be a son of the supreme Roman god Jupiter, and tried to rename Rome after himself. Commodus was assassinated, leaving an embattled succession problem—“the year of five emperors.”

Severan Emperors 193 A.D. to 235 A.D.--Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus. Emperor Septimus Severus (193 – 211 AD), Successful war in Parthia and Caledonia. Erects his Arch in the Forum. Builds huge palace on the Palatine Hill, overlooking the Circus Maximus. Dies of illness while on campaign in York, England. Emperor Caracalla (198 – 217 AD). Oldest son of Septimus Severus. Modern works portray Caracalla as a psychopathic and evil ruler. Builds the Baths of Caracalla in region south of the Forum. Murdered. Emperor Elagabalus (218 – 222 AD) Boy emperor. Murdered by Praetorian Guard. Emperor Alexander Severus (222 – 235 AD). Threats from Sassanid Empire in Persia and from the tribes of Germania. Murdered by the army.

Emperor Decius (249 – 251 AD). The persecution of Christians by Decius resulted from an edict issued in 250 by the Emperor ordering everyone in the Roman Empire to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods and the well-being of the Emperor. The edict ordered that the sacrifices be performed in the presence of a Roman magistrate, and a signed and witnessed certificate be issued to that effect/

Emperor Aurelian (reign 270-275 A.D) --Aurelian Wall built around Rome; expands upon the old Servan Wall to include the Campus Martius, some territory west of the Tiber River, areas south of the Aventine Hill, and further extensions to the east of the old wall. Vatican Hill is not protected within the Aurelian Wall, nor was it protected by the old Servan Wall.

Emperor Diocletian 284 A.D to 305 A.D Establishes the Tetrarchy in 393. Establishes price controls. War then favorable settlement with Sassanid Persians. Begins the worst Roman persecution of Christians in 302. Baths of Diocletian—located on top of the Viminal Hill, northeast of the Forum; largest of the Imperial Baths; now a Catholic Church, Santa Maria of the Angels and Martyrs. Abdicated and retired to his palace in Dalmatia in 305—modern city of Split in Croatia. Died in 312.

Emperor Maxentius 305 A.D to 312 A.D A rival of Constantine. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision sent by the Christian God, which was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of the Chi-Rho was painted on the soldiers' shields. Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in northern Rome in 312, where Maxentius perished by drowning in the Tiber River.

Emperor Constantine the Great 312 A.D to 337 A.D

313 A.D. Emperor Constantine issues the Edict of Milan ending the persecution of Christians.

325 A.D. Council of Nicaea established by the Emperor Constantine in which the bishops enunciate the creed of Christians. Arianism rejected.

330 A.D. Constantine the Great moved his capital to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople, city of Constantine. This becomes the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Constantine quells civil wars during much of his reign.

332 A.D. Constantine defeats the Goths in the eastern part of the Empire. He then defeated the Sarmatians, an Indo-European people who spoke Scythian (an Iranian language) and who once lived north of Persia.

337 A.D. Constantine the Great dies. His three sons divide the Empire between them. Constantine dies a Nicene Christian.

342 A.D Pagan sacrifice banned in Rome.

361 A.D. Emperor Julian the Apostate tries to reestablish paganism in Rome. He’s a Neoplatonist who dabbles a lot in mystic cults. He is emperor for about two years, and died in battle.

378 A.D. Visigoth barbarians defeat the Roman army of the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (in Thrace, once part of Bulgaria). Valens is slain in the battle. The Goths had crossed the Danube in 376, sparking the war with Rome. The Goths are granted territories in Thrace after virtually winning the war with Rome.

380 A.D. Emperor Theodosius declares Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica. He specified that Christianity of the Council of Nicaea, not Arianism, was the official religion.

400 A.D. Emperor moves the capital from Rome to Ravenna. The fall of Rome is by now looking imminent by a sort of domino effect. It begins in c. 375 A.D with the Huns., who were residing to the area north of the Caspian Sea, pushing westward. The Huns displace the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals who all were living in a large swath of territory from north of the Black Sea to north of Greece. This puts them in conflict with Rome. Each takes their turn in sacking Rome in the 400s and 500s.

406 A.D. Vandals and other Germanic barbarians cross the Rhine, sparking war with Rome. St. Augustine dies in the attack of the Vandals upon his city.

410 A.D Sack of Rome by Alaric and his Visigoth barbarians. End of Roman rule in Britain the same year, as army legions are needed closer to Rome to protect the city. With Britain unprotected, the Angle, Saxon, and Jute barbarians invade and settle in what becomes England in the 440s. Also feeling pressure from the Huns, the Franks move from the northern Rhineland into Roman Gaul in the 450s, and take control of what becomes northern France

452 A.D. Attack by Attila the Hun and his barbarians. He is stopped outside of Rome by Pope Leo the Great and a miraculous vision protecting the city.

455 A.D. Sack of Rome by Genseric and his Vandal barbarians.

476 A.D. Fall of Rome—the official date. Last Roman Emperor of the West abdicates under pressure from the Arian Goth Odoacer. Theodoric and the Ostrogoth barbarians take control of the region. End of the Roman Empire. Rome is sacked by the Ostrogoths under Totila in 546 A.D. The last Roman Emperor was Romulus Augustus; it is a mystery what became of him after 476—some sources say he was exiled and may have lived until 506 A.D.